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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


THE 
PRACTICAL 

Fruit  Grower 


BY 


S.  T.  MAYNARD,  B.  S., 


Professor  of  Botany  and  Horticulture  at  the  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  College. 


PROFUSELY   ILLUSTRATED 


[Copyright,  1885,  by  the  Phelps  Publishing  Company.] 


SPRINGFIELD,  MASS.: 

THE  PHELPS  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

1900 


PREFACE. 

In  this  age  of  book-making,  a  new  book  should  not  be  urged 
upon  the  public  unless  to  supply  a  real  need.  My  excuse  for  pre- 
senting at  this  time  this  little  volume,  is  the  want,  011  the  part  of 
beginners  in  the  business  of  fruit  culture,  and  of  the  common 
farmer  who  has  not  the  time  nor  inclination  to  study  extensive 
works  upon  the  subject,  of  a  book  that  shall  be  sold  at  a  small 
price  yet  cover  the  entire  field  of  fruit  cultivation,  m  all  its  de- 
tails, in  a  plain  and  practical  manner.  The  limits  of  the  present 
work,  however,  will  not  allow  of  an  extended  discussion  as  to  the 
•merits  of  the  many  methods  of  growth  and  cultivation,  and  I 
have  aimed  to  give  oulv  such  as  arc  largely  practiced  by  the  most 
successful  fruit  growers. 

S.  T.  MAYXARD. 

MASSACHUSETTS  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 
Amberst,   Mass.,   1885. 


[  Copyright,  1885,  by  the  Phelps  Publishing  Company.] 


THE   APPLE — VALUE    OF — ORIGIN. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  APPLE  (PYRUS  MALUS). 

VALUE    OF ORIGIN IMPROVEMENT    BY    HYBRIDIZATION    AND   SE- 
LECTION  ESSENTIAL    QUALITIES. 

VALUE  OF  THE  APPLE. — This  most  ancient  and  important  fruit 
of  the  temperate  zone  is  found  and  grows  successfully  wherever 
civilization  exists.  It  is  largely  cultivated  throughout  the  whole 
of  Europe,  portions  of  Northern  Africa,  Northern  Asia,  China, 
Japan,  Australia,  South  America,  and  in  North  America  from 
Alaska  to  Florida.  The  product  of  the  Apple  crop  in  a  single 
year  in  the  United  States  alone  has  reached  the  enormous  amount 
of  over  50,000,000  bushels,  and  more  than  1,000,000  acres  are 
planted  with  Apple  trees.  Aside  from  the  value  of  its  fruit,  the 
wood  is  very  valuable  for  making  weavers'  shuttles,  and  for  other 
purposes  requiring  hard,  close-grained  wood. 

ORIGIN. — The  fruit  we  now  enjoy  is  so  entirely  unlike  the 
original  type  of  the  species  as  to  be  hardly  recognized  as  belong- 
ing to  it,  yet  when  the  specific  test  is  applied,  i,  e.,  that  of  its  re- 
production from  seed,  we  find  that  the  seedlings,  even  from  the 
most  improved  varieties,  soon  revert  to  the  original  form.  It 
undoubtedly  originated  from  the  wild  crab  of  Middle  and  North- 
ern Europe.  The  type  of  the  wild  crab  is  seen  in  many  of  the 
wild  seedlings  common  in  neglected  pastures  throughout  the 
United  States,  the  fruit  of  which  is  hard  and  often  acid,  and  the 
branches  often  tipped  with  sharp  thorns. 

The  improved  varieties  now  in  cultivation  are  the  result  of 
the  influence  of  improved  condition  of  soil,  climate,  etc.  Many 
of,  or,  I  might  say,  most  of  the  b^%  varieties  known  to  us,  are 
chance  seedlings,  or  sports,  as  tiPy  are  called.  No  one  can  tell 
whether  they  resulted  from  erasing  by  natural  fertilization  or 
from  a  change  in  the  germ  due  to  superior  surroundings  of  plant 
food  and  climatic  influence. 

IMPROVEMENT  IN  VARIETIES. — In  considering  the  various 
subjects  of  improvement  of  varieties,  methods  of  propagation, 
cultivation,  pruning,  etc.,  it  will  be  my  aim  to  deal  in  general 


M362291 


4  IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE   APPLE. 

principles,  so  that,  for  economy  of  space,  the  subject  may  be 
referred  to  again  when  necessary  without  repetition. 

HYBRIDIZATION. — Very  little  attention  has  ever  been  given  to 
the  production  of  new  varieties  of  the  Apple  by  crossing,  or 
hybridization  ;  a  method  which,  in  the  case  of  some  other  fruits, 
has  resulted  in  very  marked  progress  in  the  improvement  of 
varieties.  Perhaps  it  may  be  of  interest  to  those  experimentally 
inclined  in  this  direction  to  describe  the  process.  This  is  per- 
formed by  taking  two  flowers  (and  the  process  is  the  same  with 
all  fruits)  of  desirable  varieties, — as,  one  a  strong,  rampant 
grower,  while  the  other  produces  fruit  of  remarkable  quality; 
removing  the  stamens  from  one  flower  before  it  opens,  and, 
after  this  operation,  inclosing  it  in  a  fine  gauze  bag.  When  the 
pistil  of  this  flower  is  in  the  proper  condition,  i.  e.,  when  the  end 
of  the  stigma  is  covered  with  a  viscid  fluid,  the  pollen  from  the 
other  flower  is  applied  to  its  surface,  and  then  again  inclosed  in 
the  bag,  until  certain  that  fertilization  has  taken  place. 

SELECTION. — Another  method  which  promises  good  results  is 
that  of  selection;  that  is,  by  sowing  the  most  perfectly  developed 
seed  of  the  best  varieties.  By  either  of  the  above  methods,  there 
is  but  little  incentive  to  the  production  of  new  varieties  of  Apples 
or  Pears,  on  account  of  the  long  time  required  to  produce  fruit 
and  to  test  its  value  in  many  localities,  and  the  small  money  value 
in  a  new  variety  to  the  originator.  Whatever  is  done  in  this 
line  must  be  done  for  posterity  and  from  a  love  of  the  work,  but, 
I  believe,  there  are  great  possibilities  of  improvement  in  the 
future  in  the  light  of  the  improvement  of  the  past. 

The  best  results  have  always  come  from  the  use  of  the  most 
hardy  native  kinds,  although  the  introduction  of  new  blood,  as  it 
is  called,  is  often  marked  by  a  wonderful  improvement  in  the 
progeny.  If  a  variety  has  marked  failings,  they  are  liable  to  be 
transmitted,  although,  in  some  cases,  they  may  be  overcome  or 
covered  up  by  the  strong  or  valuable  qualities  of  the  other  parent 
in  the  case  of  hybridization. 

IMPORTANT  QUALITIES. — The  qualities  that  are  most  important 
in  a  new  variety  are:  Hardiness,  vigor  of  growth,  productiveness,  and 
Jine  quality.  Without  the  three  first,  the  last  quality  is  of  little 
consequence ;  because,  with  the  people,  cheap  fruit  in  abundance 
is  the  great  want,  and  will  add  greatly  to  their  health  and,  con- 
sequently, to  their  happiness. 


RAISING    APPLES    FROM    SEED. 


CHAPTER  II. 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  APPLE. 

APPLE    SEEDLINGS — TO   GET    GOOD    SEED — THE    SEED    BED APPLE 

SEEDS — PRESERVING     SEEDS — ROOT    GRAFTING — CARE    OF   SOOT 
GRAFTS. 

The  varieties  of  Apples  are  propagated  by  buckling  or  grafting 
upon  seedlings.  The  seedlings  used  for  stocks  are  most  com- 
monly grown  from  seed  obtained  from  the  pomace  of  the  cider 
mills  by  washing.  While  some  good  seeds  may  be  obtainod  in 
this  way,  the  majority  must  be  imperfectly  developed,  as  most  of 
the  fruit  vised  for  making  cider  are  the  wind-falls  and  those  in- 
jured' by  the  codlin  moth.  To  obtain  good  seed,  the  fruit  of 
strong  native  trees  should  be  selected.  The  fruit  may  be  ground 
up  for  cider  and  the  seeds  then  separated,  or  the  Apples  may  be 
planted  whole.  Some  of  the  best  seedlings  I  have  ever  grown 
were  from  seed  planted  with  the  whole  apple  in  the  fall. 

THE  SEED-BED. — The  soil  for  the  seed-bed  should  be  deep  and 
moist,  and  made  rich  by  the  addition  of  an  abundance  of  well 
decomposed  manure,  or  ground  bone  and  potash.  New  soil  will 
grow  much  better  seedlings  than  that  previously  cultivated  for 
several  years.  It  should  be  broken  up  and  planted  with  potatoes 
one  year,  or  until  it  gets  mellow.  The  first  year  after  turf  land 
is  plowed  there  are  many  larv?e  in  the  soil  that  feed  upon  the 
young  roots  of  the  seedlings  and  greatly  injure  them.  If  the 
seed  is  piirchased  from  seed  dealers,  it  is  often  difficult  to  get  it 
in  season  for  sowing  in  the  fall.  In  such  cases  it  must  be  pre- 
served through  the  winter  packed  in  boxes  of  sand  and  be  kept 
in  a  cool  cellar,  as  near  freezing  as  possible ;  or,  the  box  may  be 
placed  partly  under  ground,  out  of  doors,  where  there  is  no  dan- 
ger of  standing  water,  taking  care  that  the  sand  does  not  get  dry 
during  the  winter. 

As  soon  as  the  ground  will  work  up  fine,  the  seed  should  be 
sown  with  the  sand  in  drills  18  inches  apart,  and  so  that  the  seed- 
lings will  stand  two  or  three  inches  apart.  All  of  the  weak  and 
imperfect  seedlings  should  be  thinned  out  as  soon  as  their  char- 
acter can  be  determined,  and  the  soil  be  kept  free  from  weeds 
and  mellow.  If  the  seed-bed  was  properly  prepared  and  the  seed 


6 


ROOT    GRAFTING. 


good,  the  seedlings  should  have   made  from  one  to  two  feet  of 
growth  the  first  season. 

The  seedlings  may  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  seed-bed  until 
the  following  spring  and  then  transplanted  to  the  nursery  to  be 
budded.  If  to  be  root-grafted,  they  should  be  dug  in  the  fall 
and  carefully  packed  in  moss  or  moist  sawdust,  and  kept  in  a  cool 
cellar  until  wanted  for  grafting. 

ROOT  GRAFTING. — During  the  winter,  when  very  little  can  be 
done  out  of  doors  in  the  nursery,  such  work  as  root  grafting  and 
making  cuttings  is  done  indoors.  The  seedlings, 
previously  dug  and  packed  in  moss  or  sawdust,  are 
taken  as  needed  from  the  cellar  and  the  cions 
grafted  upon  them  at  or  just  below  the  collar,  i.  e., 
that  part  where  the  root  and  top  joins.  The  kind 
of  graft  known  as  tongue  or  whip-grafting  is  illus- 
trated by  Figures  1,  2  and  3. 

The  stock  (Fig.  1)  is  taken  in  the  left  hand,  and 
such  lateral  roots  as  will  interfere  with  planting  are 
shortened  and  the  lower  end  cut  off  if  the  root  is 
more  than  eight  inches  long;  six  to  eight  inches  is 
the  usual  length  of  the  root.  An  upward,  slanting 
cut  is  then  made,  with  the  tongue  as  at  a.  The 
cion  (Fig.  2),  a  piece  four  to  six  inches  long,  of  the 
last  season's  growth  of  the  variety  desired,  and  as 
nearly  of  the  same  size  as  the  stock  as  possible,  is 
then  taken  and  a  similar  cut  made  at  the  base.  The 
two  parts  are  then  pressed  firmly  together,  and  the 
union  is  bound  firmly  with  waxed  string  or  waxed 
cloth  (Fig.  3).  Some  nurserymen  prefer  the  string, 
which  does  not  cover  the  entiiv  surface  of  the  cut, 
and  others  the  band,  which  perfectly  excludes  the 
air  and  moisture.  Cions  should  not  be  cut  when 
fro/en,  but  may  be  cut  at  any  other  time  and  pre- 
served in  damp  moss  until  wanted  for  use. 
Fi."'-  '•  After  the  root-grafts  are  thus  made,  they  are 

packed  in   boxes    of    sand  or  light  soil,  and  the  soil  very  firmly 
packed  around   them,    especially    at  the  point  where  the  graft  is 


Fig.  2.  Fiu.  3. 

made.      In   the   spring   the   root-grafts   and  seedlings  are   to   be 
transplanted  to  the  nursery. 


PLANTING   IN    THE    NURSERY. 


CHAPTER   III. 


THE    APPLE    NURSERY. 


SOIL PLANTING BUDDING TIME    FOR   BUDDING HOW    TO    BUD 

UTENSILS  AND  MATERIAL  EMPLOYED — POINTS  TO  BE  OB- 
SERVED IN  BUDDING — NURSERY  CULTURE — FORMING  THE 
HEAD 

SOIL. — The  soil  best  suited  for  the  growth  of  nursery  trees 
should  be  deep,  rich  and  moist,  and  be  plowed  to  the  depth  of  at 
least  15  inches.  The  seedling  for  budding  should  be  dug  as  soon 
as  the  frost  is  out  and  the  land  will  work  mellow.  After  short- 
ening the  tap  roots  and  some  of  the  laterals  a  little,  plant  in  rows 
four  feet  apart,  and  from  six  to  eight  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

PLANTING. — After  the  land  is  thoroughly  prepared  and  made 
smooth,  a  line  is  stretched  and  the  seedlings  (if  the  roots  are  not 
much  branched)  are  planted  with  a  tool  called  a 
dibble  (Fig.  4).  "Where  the  soil  is  made  mellow 
to  a  depth  of  more  than  one  foot,  seedlings,  root- 
grafts,  and  cuttings  may  be  very  rapidly  planted  by 
the  use  of  this  tool.  If  the  roots  of  the  seedlings  or 
root-grafts  are  much  branched,  they  must  be  planted 
by  opening  a  trench  with  a  spade  or  plow,  as  deep 
as  required  to  have  the  top  bud  just  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil.  The  most  important  part  of  the 
operation  of  planting  seedlings,  root-grafts  or  long 
cuttings  is  that  the  soil  be  very  firmly  pressed  about 
the  lower  ends.  This  may  be  done  by  the  foot,  or, 
much  better,  by  the  "tamper"  (Fig.  5).  This  con- 
sists of  a  piece  of  two-inch  plank  cut  with  a  base 
of  about  six  to  eight  inches,  and  tapering  up  to 
three  inches  wide  at  the  top,  in  which  is  inserted  a 
hoe  or  fork  handle. 

BUDDING. — After  planting,  the  seedlings  require  very  little 
care,  except  good  cultivation  and  a  little  pinching  to  force  the 
growth  into  one  main  stem,  until  August,  when  they  are  to  be 
budded  with  the  variety  desired  for  the  orchard  or  for  sale. 

The  best  time  for  budding  the  apple  is  generally  the  last  of 


V 


Fig.  4. 


8 


HOW    TO    BUD. 


August,  although,  if  the  growth  of  the  seedlings  is  likely  to 
mature  earlier,  by  reason  of  drouth,  leaf-blight,  or  insects, 
they  must  be  budded  earlier.  Or,  if  the  season  is  moist 
and  warm,  it  may  be  done  as  late  as  September.  Budding- 
must  be  done  before  severe  freezing,  as  that  causes  a 
thickening  or  maturing  of  the  soft  cells  of  the  cambium 
layer  of  the  bark,  thus  making  the  union  of  the  bud  and 
stock  much  more  difficult  and  very  uncertain  of  success. 
Before  beginning  the  operation  of  budding,  the  stocks 
should  be  carefully  prepared  by  trimming  off  all  of  the 
lower  branches  and  leaves  for  three  or  four  inches  from 
the  ground,  so  as  not  to  delay  the  work  of  cutting  and 
inserting  the  buds. 

The  material  used  for   tying   may   be   the   bast  fibre 
obtained  from  the  Russian  mats  that  come  around  Russian 
iron.     This  is  cut  into  lengths  of  from  10  inches  to  one    f\ 
foot,  according  to  the  size  of  the  stock  to  be  budded,  and  f        \ 
separated  into  thin,  smooth  bands  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch  "*       '^ 
in  width.     Cotton  warp  obtained  from  cotton  factories  is   Fl  -  5< 
being  extensively  used  in  some  nurseries  on  account  of  its  greater 
strength.     The  material  used  must  be  such  that  it  will  not  shrink 
upon  being  wet,  nor  expand  or  loosen  when  dry.     The  bands  are 
used  in  a  moist  condition ;  which  is  preserved,  while  in  the  field, 
by  putting  them  in  a  "  wrapper  "—a  roll  of  cloth  lined  with  a 
sheet  of  oiled  paper. 

The  knife  used  must  be  sharp  and  with  a  thin  blade  rounded  at 
the  end,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  (*-.  The  common  shoe-knife,  with  a 

short  blade,  is  now  most 
generally  used;  the  upper 
part  of  the  point  being 
rounded  over  so  as  to 
'•'i:--  '>•  answer  the  purpose  of  the 

ivory  blade  of  the  old  style  budding  knife. 

How  TO  BUD. — The  process  of  budding  is  illustrated  by  Figs. 
7  to  11.  The  conditions  of  success  are:  1,  the  stock  must  be  in  a 
vigorous  growing  state,  so  that  the  bark  will  peel  easily;  2,  the 
buds  must  be  well  matured;  3,  the  knife  must  be  sharp;  4,  the 
work  must  be  done  rapidly ;  5,  the  buds  must  be  firmly  and  evenly 
bound  in  place. 

When  everything  is  ready  for  the  work,  the  first  thing  is  to 
prepare  a  lot  of  bud-sticks  (Fig.  7).  Shoots  of  medium  size  are 
selected,  taking  care  to  get  only  those  that  have  but  one  leaf  at  a 
joint,  as  where  there  is  more  than  one  leaf,  there  are  generally 
one  or  more  fruit  buds.  The  leaves  are  cut  off,  leaving  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  petiole  or  stem  for  a  handle  with 
which  to  insert  the  bud.  The  bud-sticks  are  kept  from  drying  by 
using  a  wrapper,  as  for  the  bands.  Where  much  budding  is  to 
be  done,  two  persons  are  generally  employed ;  one  to  cut  and  put  in 
the  buds,  and  one  to  tie  or  wrap  them. 


BUDDING     EXPLAINED. 


Where  only  a  small  number  are  to  be  budded,  the  operator 
carries  the  wrappers,  both  over  the  left  shoulder,  and  with  the 
knife  makes  first  a  cross-cut 
about  two  inches  from  the  (X 


ground;     then    a    longitudinal  V 


Fig.  *. 


Fig.  9. 


one  on  the  north  side,  so  as  not 

to  be  injured  by  freezing  and 

thawing  in  winter;  at  the  same 

time  raising  the  bark  a  little,  as 

shown  in  Fig.  8.     A  bud-stick, 

Fig.  7,  is  then  taken;    with  the 

knife  a  cut  is  made  just  through 

the  bark   about   one-half   inch 

above  the  bud,  taking   only  a 

very  thin  portion  of  the  wood. 

The  length  of  the  cut  must  be 

varied  for  the  different  kinds 

of   trees.     For  the  peach,  the 

whole  bud  need  not  be  much 

more  than  one-half   of  an  inch 

long,    while   for  the   pear    and 

cherry  it  should  be  at  least  one 

inch  in  length. 
After  the  bud  is  cut,  Fig.  9,  the 

lower  end  is  inserted  under  the 

raised  bark  of  the  stock  and  pressed  down  by  means  of  the  remain- 
ing part  of  the  leaf  stem,  Fig.  10.    If  the  bark  does  not  peel  easily 

enough  to  be  raised  by  the  pressure  upon  the  bud,  the  stock  is  not 

in  the  best  condition  for  success;  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  raise 

it  by  the  use  of  the  rounded  portion  of  the  blade  of  the  knife. 

After  the  bud  is  in  position,  it  is 
tied  by  holding  one  end  of  the 
band  in  the  left  hand,  placing  it 
against  the  stock,  and  winding 
the  other  end  over  the  first,  so  as 
to  hold  it  while  both  hands  are 
employed  to  bind  the  bud  smoothly 
and  firmly;  winding  first  upward, 
crossing  above  the  bud,  returning 
and  tying  below  the  bud,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  11.  The  most  important 
point  in  tying  is  to  bind  the  bark 
down  firmly  and  smoothly  over 
the  bud.  After  the  trees  have 
been  budded  a  week  or  two,  de- 
pending upon  the  condition  of  the 
weather,  they  should  be  examined, 
and  if  the  growth  is  such  that  the 
bands  are  cutting  into  the  stock  so 
10  Fltr  n  as  to  injure  them,  they  should  be 


10  FORMING   THE    TREE. 

loosened  and  re-tied;  or  cut  on  the  back  side,  if  the  bud  is  found 
well  united  with  the  stock. 

The  next  spring  after  budding,  the  stock  is  cut  off  with  a  sharp 
knife,  placing-  the  blade  on  the  side  opposite  the  bud  at  the  height  of 
the  cross-cut,  and  making  an  upward  stroke,  so  that  the  knife  will 
come  out  about  one  inch  above  the  bud.  When  growth  begins  it 
will  be  found  that  the  buds  of  the  stock  will  start  more  vigorously 
than  the  one  inserted,  and  when  they  are  an  inch  or  two  long, 
they  should  be  broken  off,  that  the  growth  may  all  go  with  the 
inserted  bud. 

NURSERY  CULTURE. — The  after-treatment  of  the  bud  and  root- 
graft,  in  the  nursery,  should  be  the  same;  the  object  being  the 
growth  of  clean,  healthy,  well-formed  trees.  Only  one  shoot 
should  be  allowed  to  grow,  and  if  laterals  start  out,  they  must  be 
pinched  off.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season's  growth,  or  before 
they  start  in  the  spring  following,  the  stocks  are  to  be  cut  back  to 
the  ground,  and  only  one  shoot  allowed  to  grow,  that  a  clean, 
straight  trunk  may  be  obtained. 

FORMING  THE  HEAD. — During  the  summer  of  the  second  year, 
if  the  growth  has  been  satisfactory,  the  head  is  pormed.  If  the 
trees  are  to  be  planted  where  they  must  be  kept  cultivated,  the 
head  should  be  formed  five  feet  high.  This  is  a  difficult  thing  to 
do,  but  the  tree  must  be  headed  up  as  high  as  possible  by  rubbing 
off  the  lateral  buds,  as  soon  as  they  start  in  the  spring,  from 
three  to  four  feet  up  from  the  ground,  and  then  pinching  the  ends 
of  the  lateral  branches  above;  leaving  a  clean  leader  in  the  centre, 
upon  which  laterals  will  be  formed,  as  is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines 
at  &,  Fig.  14,  Page  15.  The  trees  must  have  careful  attention 
during  the  entire  season  if  fine  form  is  desired;  and  only  those 
shoots  should  be  allowed  to  grow  that  are  needed  to  make  a  well- 
shaped  head.  A  large  amount  of  foliage  should  never  be  removed 
from  any  tree;  and  at  this  stage  of  growth,  there  should  not  be 
any  necessity  for  so  doing,  if  they  have  had  proper  treatment. 

In  the  growth  of  fruit  or  any  other  kind  of  trees,  it  should  be 
made  a  rule  "  not  to  cut  away  more  wood  or  foliage  than  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  accomplish  the  desired  end,  i.  e.,  the  per- 
fect-formed tree;  for  every  cut  upon  a  tree,  whether  large  or 
small,  can  only  result  in  weakness,  although  the  injury  may  be 
more  or  less  overcome  by  good  cultivation  and  an  abundance  of 
plant  food."  If  the  trees  are  making  a  weak  growth,  indicating 
exhaustion  of  the  soil,  manure  or  chemical  fertilizers  must  be 
used ;  but  they  should  be  applied  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the 
spring,  as  a  late  summer  application  often  results  in  so  late  a 
growth  of  the  trees  that  the  wood  does  not  get  well  ripened,  and 
the  trees  are  injured  in  the  winter. 


TREES   FOB    THE   ORCHARD.  11 


CHAPTER   IV, 


THE    APPLE    ORCHARD. 


TREES  FOR  PLANTING — PROPER  FORM,  AGE  AND  SIZE  OF  TREE — 
THE  LAND  FOR  THE  APPLE — ESSENTIALS  TO  SUCCESS — LAYING 
OUT  THE  ORCHARD — THE  PLANTING  BOARD — DIGGING  THE 
HOLES MANURING. 

TREES  FOR  PLANTING. — The  best  trees  for  planting  are  vigor- 
ous trees  that  have  reached  a  medium  size  at  the  age  of  three  or 
four  years  from  the  bud  or  root-graft.  While  a  large  tree  is  not 
desirable,  on  account  of  the  number  of  roots  that  must  necessar- 
ily be  destroyed  in  digging,  it  has  more  vitality  and  will  stand 
more  ill-treatment  and  exposure  than  a  smaller  one.  The  fibrous 
roots  of  the  young  tree  will  be  found  within  a  short  distance  of 
the  trunk;  while  in  an  older  one  they  have  been  extending  a  little 
further  each  year,  and  when  dug  little  else  but  the  main  branches 
are  obtained.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  obtain  trees,  of  medium  size, 
if  they  are  purchased,  one  or  two  years  before  the  time  of 
planting  and  set  them  carefully  in  the  nursery  row  eight  or  ten 
inches  apart;  or  if  the  trees  were  grown  upon  one's  own  grounds, 
take  them  up  and  transplant  them  again  before  setting  out. 
Trees  in  this  condition  can  be  moved  with  nearly  all  the  fibrous 
roots  and  not  receive  much  check. 

If  the  planter  has  the  necessary  skill  to  grow  up  a  tree  to  the  prop- 
er form  and  height,  after  they  are  planted  in  the  orchard,  it  would 
be  much  safer  to  plant  stocky,  low-branched  trees;  as  a  tall,  slim 
one  is  liable  to  injury  from  the  large  surface  exposed  to  a  hot, 
drying  atmosphere,  after  being  removed  from  the  shelter  of  the 
nursery.  The  training  or  "  heading  up  "  to  the  proper  height  is 
illustrated  by  Figs.  13  and  14,  Page  15.  For  the  majority  of 
planters,  until  this  skill  is  acquired,  the  nurseryman  must  grow 
the  trees  to  the  height  adapted  to  orchard  cultivation. 

THE  LAND  best  suited  for  the  growth  of  the  Apple  is  a  deep, 
moist,  sandy  loam;  but  the  Apple  will  give  fair  crops  upon  almost 
any  soil,  except  a  very  sandy  one. 

Two  methods  of  growth  are  in  common  use:  The  first  where  the 
trees  are  grown  in  turf;  and  second,  where  the  land  is  kept  uii 
der  cultivation  with  some  other  crop.  JNo  matter  what  system 


12  LAYING    OUT    AND    PLANTING. 

may  be  adopted,  one  thing  must  be  constantly  kept  in  mind,  i.  e., 
that  we  cannot  expect  satisfactory  results  unless  there  is  an  abund- 
ance of  proper  plant  food  and  moisture  in  the  soil  in  condition  to  be 
taken  up  by  the  roots  of  the  trees. 

DISTANCE  FOR  PLANTING. — Trees  of  medium  size,  like  the 
Early  Harvest,  Garden  Royal,  Fameuse,  etc.,  should  be  planted 
thirty  by  thirty  feet.  Those  that  are  kept  in  a  close,  compact  form 
by  heading-in  may  also  be  set  the  same  distance.  The  larger  kinds, 
like  the  Baldwin,  Gravenstein,  etc.,  if  allowed  to  spread  to  full 
size,  should  be  planted  thirty-five  by  forty,  or  forty  by  forty 
feet. 

LAYING  OUT  THE  ORCHARD. — In  planting  an  orchard,  whether 
it  is  to  be  cultivated  or  not,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the 
rows  straight  and  the  trees  at  equal  distances  apart;  not  only  for 
beauty,  but  for  convenience  in  getting  about  among  them.  Perhaps 
the  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  use  a  long,  hard-twisted  cord  or  wire 
with  marks  at  proper  intervals  upon  it.  The  wire  is  much  the 
best  as  it  is  not  affected  by  wet  or  dryness,  and  will  not  stretch. 
This  line  should  be  stretched  along  two  opposite  sides  and  stakes 
driven  at  the  marks  upon  it.  Then  stretch  it  from  the  opposite 
stakes,  putting  stakes  at  every  mark,  and  it  will  be  found  that  all 
are  in  line  from  every  point  of  observation. 

To  lay  out  an  orchard  so  that  the  stakes  shall  all  be  exactly  in 
line  is  a  very  simple  matter,  but  to  plant  the  trees  so  they  shall 
be  equally  true,  is  almost  an  impossibility,  without  the  aid  of 
something  besides  the  eye.  Two  methods  are  sometimes  adopted: 
The  first,  by  using  the  same  wire  employed  for  staking  out;  and 
second,  by  what  is  known  as  the  planting  board.  The  objection 
to  the  first  is,  that  it  is  in  the  way  of  the  workmen  in  planting  and 
is  liable  to  be  moved  to  one  side  or  the  other  by  only  slight 
pressure. 

THE  PLANTING  BOARD,  however,  is  free  from  the  above  objec- 
tions, and  is  illustrated  by  |^  n  f  ^^ 
Fig.  12.  It  consists  of  a 

narrow   board  about   four  Fig.  12. 

feet  long,  with  a  notch  in  the  centre  and  one  equally  distant  from 
this  at  each  end.  Before  digging  the  holes,  this  board  is  placed 
with  the  centre  notch  against  the  stake  and  held  firmly,  while 
the  stake  is  pulled  up  and  put  in  the  notch  at  one  end,  and 
another  stake  at  the  notch  in  the  other  end.  The  board  can  now 
be  taken  away  and  the  hole  dug,  taking  care  not  to  disturb  the 
two  stakes. 

DIGGING  THE  HOLES. — If  many  trees  are  to  be  planted,  it  is 
best  to  dig  as  many  holes  during  the  middle  of  the  day  as  can  be 
filled  with  trees  during  the  last  two  hours  of  the  afternoon  and 
the  first  two  hours  of  the  morning,  as  the  roots  will  be  much  less 
liable  to  injury  than  if  planted  in  the  hot  sun  in  the  middle  of  the 
day.  If  the  land  is  to  be  cultivated,  the  holes  need  be  only  large 
enough  to  allow  the  spreading  of  all  of  the  roots  in  their  natural 


MANURING   THE    ORCHARD.  13 

positions;  their  size  must  depend  upon  the  size  and  kind  of  tree 
planted.  If  the  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  turf,  it  will  be  advis- 
able to  dig  the  hole  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter  and  to  loosen 
the  subsoil  somewhat.  The  surface  soil  should  be  thrown  in  a 
pile  by  itself,  to  be  used  for  filling  around  the  roots,  and  the  sub- 
soil in  another  pile,  to  be  spread  upon  the  surface. 

If  the  soil  is  poor,  it  is  necessary  for  success  that  some  well 
rotted  manure  or  fertilizer  be  put  with  the  soil  for  filling  in 
about  the  roots.  This  must  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil, 
or  it  may  result  in  injury  rather  than  benefit.  If  coarse 
manure  only  is  at  hand,  it  should  not  be  used  until  the  roots  have 
been  covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  soil,  when  it  may  be 
applied  with  safety.  The  amount  to  be  used  must  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  poorness  of  the  soil  and  the  strength  of  the  manure, 
ranging  from  one  to  two  shovelfuls  of  fine,  well  decomposed 
manure;  or  from  two  to  four  large  handfuls  of  fine  ground 
bone ;  or  one  to  two  handfuls  of  the  prepared  bone  and  potash, 
well  mixed  with  the  soil.  Many  people  will  blame  the  nursery- 
man because  the  trees  they  plant  do  not  grow,  when  the  main 
cause  is  in  the  fact  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  soil  to  .make  them 
grow.  One  has  as  good  a  right  to  expect  a  good  crop  of  corn 
from  land  with  no  fertilizing  elements  in  it,  as  a  good  growth  of 
trees  in  a  similar  soil.  If  some  of  the  people  who  fail  in  tree 
planting  from  this  cause, — and  most  failures  do  result  from 
starvation  of  the  tree, — could  see  the  amount  of  manure  used  by 
the  nurserymen  and  successful  orchardists  (and  needed,  too)  to 
make  their  trees  grow,  they  would  cease  to  wonder  why  theirs  do 
no  better,  and  put  the  blame  where  it  belongs. 


14:  PREPARING   FOR   PLANTING. 


CHAPTER  V. 


SETTING   THE  APPLE  ORCHARD. 


DIGGING  TREES  FROM  THE  NURSERY — PREPARING  TREES  FOR 
PLANTING — FORMING  THE  HEAD — PLANTING  THE  TREES — CUL- 
TIVATION-— TURF  CULTURE — SUPPLYING  FOOD  TO  THE  ORCHARD. 

DIGGING  THE  TREES  FROM, THE  NURSERY.— To  those  who  may 
have  grown  their  own  trees,  I  offer  a  few  words  of  advice  as  to 
the  best  way  to  get  the  trees  from  the  ground  with  the  least  in- 
jury. Nursery  trees  are  best  dug  by  three  men;  two  with  spades, 
and  one  to  pull  out  the  trees  after  they  are  loosened.  The  two 
men  with  spades  first  remove  the  surface  soil  down  to  the  upper 
lateral  roots,  for  a  space  of  at  least  two  feet  from  the  trunk  on  each 
side;  the  spades  are  then  inserted,  the  soil  loosened,  and  the  roots 
outside  of  the  circle  of  soil  removed  are  cut  off.  After  loosening 
the  soil,  both  spades  are  inserted,  and  with  u  lifting  movement,  the 
third  man  at  the  same  time  pulling,  the  tree  is  lifted  with  nearly  all 
of  the  fibrous  roots  within  the  space  of  two  or  three  feet.  The  trees 
should  be  thrown  in  piles  of  from  ten  to  twenty-five,  and  covered 
with  a  mat  or  blanket.  If  not  to  be  planted  at  once,  they  should 
be  removed  to  near  the  place  of  planting  and  be  "heeled  in;" 
that  is,  the  roots  covered  carefully  with  soil. 

PREPARING  THE  TREE  FOR  PLANTING. — Xo  matter  how  care- 
fully the  trees  are  dug,  more  or  less  of  the  roots  will  be  destroyed 
or  injured.  As  trees  are  often  received  from  the  nurseries,  there 
is  little  to  them  but  the  top  and  a  few  stubs  of  roots.  In  this 
condition,  there  are  a  large  number  of  buds  on  the  top  to  be 
supplied  with  food  and  moisture  from  a  small  amount  of  roots. 
The  consequence  is  that  none  of  the  branches  make  much  growth; 
or,  perhaps,  evaporation  is  so  great  from  the  expanding  buds,  and 
the  large  amount  of  surface  of  the  branches  exposed,  that  the 
moisture  is  dried  out  faster  than  it  is  supplied  by  the  scanty  roots, 
and  the  tree  dies. 

To  remedy  this  condition,  the  top  should  be  reduced  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  injury  to  the  roots.  The  older  and  larger 
the  tree,  the  more  severely  must  it  be  pruned.  The  large  roots, 
wherever  injured,  should  be  cut  off  smooth,  as  decay  is  much 


FORMING  THE  HEAD — PLANTING. 


15 


\ 


more  likely  to  spread  from  a  torn  than    from    a  smoothly  cnt 
surface. 

FORMING  THE  HEAD. — In  cutting  back  the  top  of  the  tree  to 
make  a  balance  between  the  root  and  top,  the  formation  of  the 
head  should  be  kept  in  mind  and  all  shoots  not  needed  to  make  a 
good  head  should  be  removed.  The  trees  received  from  most 
nurseries  are  of  two  forms,  with  slight  modifications,  as  illustrated 
by  Fig  13,  where  the  branches  come  out 
at  the  same  point;  and  by  Fig.  14,  where 
the  branches  are  distributed  along  a 
main  axis.  The  objection  to  the  first 
form  is,  that  when  the  trees  become 
loaded  with  fruit,  they  are  liable  to  split 
down  in  the  fork;  while  in  the  second 
case,  there  is  no  such  danger.  A  good 
rule  to  follow  is,  to  cut  away  all  branches 
not  needed  to  give  the  head  a  good  form ; 
and  shorten  all  others  from  one-half  to 
three-fourths,  according  to  the  amount 
of  injury  the  roots  had  received  in 
digging. 

It  often  happens  that  the  trees  received 
from  the  nursery  are  headed  two  low, 
and  require  "  heading  up."  This  is  ac- 
complished by  cutting  away  all  but  the 
leading  shoot,  as  is  shown  by  Fig.  13,  D, 
and  Fig.  14,  A  A  A,  where  new  branches  will  be  thrown  out  from 
the  lateral  buds,  as  is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  To  head  trees 
up  to  six  feet  in  height,  often  requires  two  or  three  years  from 
planting.  Trees  with  a  tall  trunk  are  more  liable*  to  injury  on 
account  of  exposure  to  sun,  and  frost,  and  other  causes,  than  those 
with  a  short  trunk,  while  in  the  latter  the  fruit  is  more  easily 
gathered. 

PLANTING. — Having  the  holes  dug,  the  trees  pruned,  and  every- 
thing in  readiness,  the  most  important  part  of  the  work  is  now  to 
be  done.  Only  a  few  trees  should  be  dropped  at  once,  and  these 
with  the  roots  in  the  holes,  that  they  may  not  be  more  exposed  to 
the  air  than  is  necessary.  Three  men  are  required  to  do  the  woik 
most  rapidly;  one  to  carry  the  trees,  hold  them  in  place,  spread 
out  the  roots  and  press  the  soil  in  about  them;  and  two  with 
spades,  one  of  whom  carries  the  planting  board.  Perhaps  ten 
trees  have  been  dropped,  when  man  No.  1.  takes  up  the  first  tree, 
while  No.  2.  fixes  the  planting  board  with  the  end  notches  against 
the  two  stakes.  No.  1  now  places  the  tree  trunk  in  the  middle 
notch  of  the  planting  board  and  spreads  the  roots,  while  No.  3  is 
prepared  to  throw  in  some  fine,  rich,  surface  soil,  which  No.  1 
works  carefully  in  around  the  roots,  treading  it  firmly  in  place. 
As  soon  as  the  tree  is  in  its  proper  place,  No.  2  throws  his  board  to 
the  next  hole,  and  takes  up  his  spade  to  assist  infilling  in  the  soil. 


16  CULTURE  OF  THE  ORCHARD. 

In  this  operation,  the  secret  of  success  is  to  see  that  there  are  no 
air  spaces  around  the  roots  or  under  the  collar,  and  that  the  soil  is 
pressed  very  firmly  around  the  roots. 

CULTIVATION. — The  effect  of  stirring  the  soil  after  plant- 
ing trees  is:  First,  in  preventing  the  escape  of  moisture  by 
forming  a  layer  of  loose  non-conducting  material  of  the 
surface;  and  second,  by  hastening  the  preparation  of  plant 
food  in  the  soil  by  the  air  admitted.  In  young  orchards,  if  it  is 
thought  necessary  to  cultivate,  it  will  be  found  most  economical 
to  grow  some  hoed  crop  among  the  trees  for  several  years  at 
least;  but  as  a  rule,  such  crops  will  not  more  than  pay  the  cost  of 
cultivation  and  manure  used,  while  they  often  fall  far  short  of 
this,  and  the  owner  must  take  his  profit  in  the  increased  value 
of  his  orchard.  Any  hoed  crop  may  be  used  that  does  not  require 
cultivation  late  in  the  fall,  for  young  orchard  land  should  never 
be  cultivated  between  August  first  and  November  first,  as  it  is 
almost  certain  to  prolong  the  growth  of  wood  so  that  the  trees 
will  be  in  danger  of  injury  from  the  winter. 

TURF  CULTURE. — In  turf  culture,  the  preservation  of  moisture 
in  the  soil  must  be  gained  by  the  use  of  mulch.  Any  material,  as 
brush,  brakes,  coarse  meadow-grass,  straw,  leaves,  planing-machine 
shavings,  etc.,  may  be  used;  while  the  plant  food  must  be  added 
in  some  form  at  the  time  of  planting  the  trees,  or  later  upon  the 
surface. 

In  nearly  every  state  in  the  Union  there  are  thousands  upon 
thousands  of  acres  of  land  so  rough  and  stony  that  it  cannot  be 
cultivated,  and  upon  which  are  often  found  apple  trees  remarkable 
for  their  vigor  and  productiveness.  The  fruit  produced  upon  such 
land  is  noted  for  its  high  color  and  rich  flavor,  and  for  long- 
keeping  qualities.  Much  of  this  land  is  almost  worthless  for  any 
other  purpose  than  forestry  and  the  production  of  the  large  fruits ; 
and  if  properly  planted  and  cared  for,  it  would  in  a  few  years  give 
a  large  income  for  the  investment.  In  planting  such  land, 
particular  care  must  be  given  to  the'  preparation  of  the  soil 
directly  around  the  tree,  and  to  saving  the  material  often  found 
growing  upon  it, — such  as  sedges,  brakes,  brush,  etc., — or  obtained 
elsewhere,  to  be  used  for  mulch,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
moisture  that  is  rapidly  carried  away  by  the  leaves  of  grasses  and 
other  plants. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  system  are,  that  the  trees 
mature  their  wood  much  earlier  in  the  autumn,  and  consequently 
are  less  liable  to  injury  from  cold;  the  roots  are  protected  from 
injury  from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  by  the  grass  roots ; 
the  trees  begin  bearing  much  earlier  and  bear  more  regularly,  the 
fruit  is  of  better  quality  and  keeps  longer;  the  cost  of  land  and 
cultivation  is  much  less,  while  a  satisfactory  growth  may  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  a  small  amount  of  manure  or  fertilizei 
applied  to  the  surface, 


FEEDING    THE    TREE.  17 

I  wish  to  repeat  Here,  however,  what  I  have  said  on  a  previous 
page:  Whatever  system  is  followed,  success  will  not  be  obtained 
unless  an  abundant  supply  of  plant  food  be  provided;  and  the 
cheapest  and  best  method  of  supplying  the  above  conditions  must 
be  decided  upon  by  the  good  sense  of  the  grower,  according  to 
his  surroundings. 

2 


18  THE    USE    OF    STABLE    MANURE. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


MANURING,  PRUNING  AND  VARING  FOR  THE 
APPLE  OJK'UMU). 

STABLE    MANURE HOW    TO    USE   IT — FERTILIZERS  AND  THEIR  AP- 
PLICATION— MULCHING — PRUNING — IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PRUNING. 

STABLE  MANURE  is  always  good  for  fruit  trees  in  limited  quan- 
tities, Imt  it  may  be  used  so  as  to  cause  harm  instead  of  good.  It 
should  be  applied  sparingly  to  young  trees,  unless  the  soil  is  very 
poor  or  an  exhausting  crop  is  to  be  taken  from  the  land,  that  will 
feed  largely  upon  the  elements  that  tend  to  produce  a  coarse, 
woody  growth,  i.  c..,  the  nitrogenous  elements.  The  best  time  to 
apply  stable  manure  is  in  the  fall — on  land  that  will  not  wash 
badly — or  very  early  in  the  spring.  If  applied  in  the  summer, 
it  causes  a  late  growth  that  is  very  liable  to  injury  and  disease. 

When  the  trees  reach  maturity,  and  are  bearing  exhausting 
crops  of  fruit,  manure  may  be  used  more  liberally,  especially  in 
the  spring  of  the  bearing  year,  for  many  trees  are  almost  ruined 
by  their  effort  to  produce  a  very  large  crop  of  fruit,  particularly 
should  the  season  prove  dry.  Such  trees  are  in  the  condition  of 
the  over-loaded  and  ill-fed  horse,  or  the  poor,  over-worked  laborer; 
they  are  all  alike  liable  to  the  attack  of  contagious  diseases. 
Trees  that  have  been  injured  by  over-bearing  may  be  improved 
very  much  by  the  application  of  nitrogenous  manure  the  non- 
fruiting  year.  The  effect  is  to  cause  a  large  development  of  wood 
at  the  expense  of  the  fruit  buds.  This  illustrates  a  law  that  we 
find  throughout  all  life,  both  plant  and  animal:  That  causes 
which  increase  the  vigor  of  the  stock  or  body,  decrease  the  re- 
productive forces;  while  a  decrease  of  vigor  in  the  body  or  stock, 
gives  activity  to  the  powers  of  reproduction.  Herein  is  a  wise  pro- 
vision of  nature  for  the  perpetuation  of  species;  for  when  the 
body  or  stock  is  vigorous,  there  is  no  necessity  for  immediate 
provision  for  the  future;  but  when  the  body  becomes  weak,  na- 
ture makes  an  unusual  effort  to  perpetuate  the  species  by  an 
increase  of  the  reproductive  powers. 

FERTILIZERS. — One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  the  fruit  grower 
meets  in  his  business  is  that  of  obtaining  the  necessary  amount  of 
plant  food  to  produce  satisfactory  results.  This  problem  is  be- 


CHEMICAL     FERTILIZERS.  19 

coming  in  a  measure  solved  in  the  large  amount  of  chemical 
manures  now  being  manufactured.  Of  those  kinds  best  suited  for 
the  production  of  fruit,  fine  ground  bone  and  potash  are  the  best, 
with  more  or  less  nitrogen  to  produce  a  vigorous  plant  body.  The 
best  grades  of  bone  contain  sufficient  nitrogen  for  most  soils,  but 
for  very  poor  land  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  use  some  nitro- 
genous compound  like  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia  or 
animal  matter.  For  an  acre  of  Apple  trees  (forty  trees)  over  ten 
years  of  age,  the  following  formula  will  give  good  results,  varying 
the  quantity  of  the  elements  used  according  to  the  kind  of  soil, 
and  the  crops,  other  than  fruit,  removed: 

'J-lo  Ibs.  fine  ground  bone. 

100  Ibs.  high  grade  (80  per  cent)  muriate  of  potash. 
~)()  Ibs,  sulphate  of  ammonia  or  nitrate  of  soda. 

If  the  soil  is  very  pool',  as  indicated  by  the  slow  growth  of  the 
tree,  more  of  the  last  element  must  be  used;  if  the  land  is  rich, 
raid  the  trees  are  making  too  much  wood,  use  only  the  bone  and 
potash.  The  effect  of  the  nitrogenous  elements  is  to  increase  the 
leaf  action  of  the  plant;  of  the  potash  to  cause  a  large  develop- 
ment of  starch  and  sugar;  while  the  phosphoric  acid  of  the  bone 
causes  a  large  development  of  the  seed.  For  fruit  alone,  bone 
and  potash  are  perhaps  the  best  fertilizer  that  can  be  used. 

As  with  stable  manure,  the  best  time  to  apply  fertilizers  is  late 
in  the  fall  or  very  early  in  the  spring. 

MULCHING. — Without  water  in  the  soil,  no  fertilizer  or  man- 
ure will  have  much  effect  upon  plant  growth;  and  upon  soils  that 
are  liable  to  injury  from  drouth,  mulching'  in  some  form  must  be 
resorted  to.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  the  fine,  loose  layer  of 
soil  on  top,  is  a  most  effectual  mulch. 

PRUNING. — The  first  year  after  the  tree  is  planted  it  must  have 
constant  attention.  It  is  like  a  child,  and  its  first  years  of  train- 
ing determine  its  character  or  form.  After  the  main  branches 
have  become  fixed,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  14,  Page  13,  all  the  prun- 
iii;>  the  trees  require  is  to  give  symmetry  and  regularity  to  the 
head  by  pinching  out  the  bud  of  those  shoots  that  tend  to  out- 
grow the  others,  until  the  branches  become  liable  to  injury  by 
crossing  and  rubbing  together  or  until  so  thick  as  to  interfere  with 
ease  in  gathering  the  fruit.  While  young,  the  trees  should  be  al- 
lowed to  grow  with  a  close  head;  for  when  they  begin  to  bear, 
the  weight  of  the  fruit  will  bend  down  the  lower  branches  enough 
to  let  in  all  the  sunlight  and  air  needed  for  the  perfection  of  the 
fruit.  The  largest  and  best  fruit  is  always  borne  upon  those  trees 
with  the  largest  and  most  perfect  leaf  development. 

Cutting  of  large  branches  should  be  avoided,  as  every  blow 
made  upon  a  tree  is  certain  to  shorten  its  life.  It  is  generally 
known  that  cutting  off  a  large  quantity  of  branches,  in  the  fall  or 
winter,  will  cause  a  great  increase  in  the  size  and  quality  of  the 
fruit  the  following  year.  Consequently  the  farmer  thinks  he 
must  prune  his  trees  annually.  But  this  increase  is  at  the  expense 


20 


REASONS    FOR    PRUNING. 


of  the  tree  to  a  certain  degree,  for  the  number  of  apples  is 
diminished  in  proportion  to  the  severity  of  the  pruning  and 
consequently,  with  the  same  amount  of  food  and  root  force  that  the 
whole  crop  would  have  had,  the  remaining  fruit  is  much  increased 
in  size.  Had  the  labor  expended  in  pruning  been  directed  to 
thinning  the  fruit,  or  in  the  application  of  more  plant  food,  there 
would  have  been  a  much  greater  gain  in  the  crop  of  fruit  and  no 
loss  in  the  vigor  of  the  trees.  But  four  good  reasons  can  be  given 
for  cutting  oft'  large  branches  from  fruit  trees: 

1.  To  Improve  the  Form. — It  sometimes  is  the  case  that  a  tree 
becomes  one-sided  from  the  influence  of  prevailing  winds,  or  other 
causes,  when  a  little  judicious  cutting  of  branches  may  be  necessary 
to  rectify  the  trouble. 

2.  To  Enable    Teams  to   Work  under  their  Branches. — The    re- 
moval of  large  branches  for  this  reason   is   sometimes  necessary, 
but  in  most  cases  the  desired  end  may  be  accomplished  by  cutting 

off  the  end  at  an  upright  branch, 
as  illustrated  at  a,  Fig.  lo. 

3.  To  Enable  the  Pickers  to 
Gather  the  Fruit  Easily. — As  trees 
become  older,  especially  if  they 
have  been  subjected  to  the  "annual 
pruning,"  suckers  come  out  in 
large  numbers  upon  the  main 
branches,  and  make  it  very  dim- 
cult  to  gather  the  fruit  upon  the 
inside  of  the  tree.  These  suckers 
are  the  result  of  the  effort  of  the 
plant  to  overcome  the  injury 
caused  by  the  action  of  the  sun 
and  cold  upon  the  bare  branches, 

and  should  be  thinned  out  onlv  enough  to  accomplish  the  desired 

end,  and  to  allow  some  of  th-.  in  >st  vigorous  branches  to  develop 

more  fully,    and  thus   renew 

the  tree. 

4.   To  Remove  such  Branches 

as  are  Dead. — The  removal  of 

dead  branches  is  best  accom- 
plished in  the    summer  when 

the  foliage  is  upon  the  trees. 
When  large  branches  must 

be  removed,  the  wound  should  jr\. 

be   covered  with    linseed    oil 

and   lead  paint,    or   grafting 

wax,  to  preserve  the  injured 

part  from  decay  until  it  has 

healed  over.     This  paint  may 

be  made  the  color  of  the  bark 

of  the  tree  by  the  addition  of 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  16. 


TOOLS     FOR    PRUNING. 


21 


a  little  black,  green  and  brown  coloring  matter.  The  condition 
of  many  of  the  apple  orchards  of  the  country  is  illustrated  by 
Fig.  16,  while  the  more  perfect  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  15. 

IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PRUNING. — For  removing  large  branches,  a 


Fig.  17 


saw  with  a  long  narrow  blade  is  best.  Fig.  17  illustrates  a  very 
serviceable  form.  For  heading-in  branches  that  are  outgrowing 
their  neighbors,  to  the  injury  of  the  form  of  the  tree,  and  to 
remove  insects'  nests  and  eggs,  the  pruning  hook  is  very  useful. 


Fig.  18. 


Fig.  18  illustrates  the  Waters'  pruning  hook,  which  is  one  of 
the  best.  A  pruning  knife  is  also  necessary  for  the  removal  of 
suckers  from  the  trunk,  and  for  paring  the  wounds  smooth  when 
large  branches  are  cut  away. 


22  CHANGING  THE  BEARING  YEAR. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


GRAFTING    THE  APPLE. 

AGE  OF   FRUITING — ODD-YEAR    BEARING TO    CHANGE    THE    HEAR- 
ING YEAR RE-GRAFTING  OLD  TREES — HOW  TO  GRAFT TIME  OF 

GRAFTING. 

AGE  OF  FRUITING. — The  average  a^e  at  which  the  Apple  will 
begin  to  bear  profitable  crops  of  fruit,  is  from  eight  to  ten  years 
from  planting  in  the  orchard;  varying  with  the  variety,  the  soil  in 
which  it  is  grown  and  the  care  it  has  received.  Upon  light,  poor 
soil,  and  in  turf  land,  fruit  will  be  produced  much  earlier  than  in 
a  heavier  and  richer  soil.  With  proper  treatment  good  crops  of 
fruit  may  be  expected  for  at  least  fifty  years,  although  the  aver- 
age bearing  age  of  the  orchards  of  the  country  is  probably  much 
less. 

ODD- YEAR  BEARING. — In  most  orchards  large  crops  of  fruit 
are  produced  only  upon  alternate  years.  In  northern  latitudes 
the  larger  crop  is  borne  upon  the  even  year. .  The  cause  may  be 
climatic,  as  severe  frosts  when  the  fruit  has  set  or  is  a  little  past 
the  blossoming  stage.  This  was  illustrated  in  188-1  in  many  .sec- 
tions of  New  England,  by  a  frost  the  night  of  Juns  30th.  Upon 
eastern  and  southern  slepes  the  petals  of  the  blossoms  had  fallen, 
and  the  fruit  was  in  many  cases  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  was  destroyed;  while  upon  the  western  and 
northern  slopes,  the  petals  had  not  fallen  and  the  fruit  was  unin- 
jured. Those  sections  where  the  fruit  was  destroyed  by  frost  at 
that  time,  now  promise  a  large  crop :  while  the  trees  that  fruited 
in  1884  are  fruitless  in  1885.  Over-bearing  one  season  may 
result  in  the  exhaustion  of  the  tree,  so  that  it  takes  one  year  for 
it  to  recover  its  strength  to  produce  another  crop.  Drouth  for  a 
succession  of  years  may  also  bring  about  the  same  condition,  as 
may  also  the  depredations  of  the  canker  worm  and  other  insects. 
This  condition  may  be  corrected: 

1.  By  removing  a  part  or  all  of  the  fruit  the  bearing  year  soon 
after  setting.  One  operation  is  often  successful,  if  thoroughly 
done,  but  sometimes  it  must  be  repeated.  It  should  be  practiced 
upon  young  trees  until  the  habit  desired  has  become  fixed. 


REGKAFTING    OLD    TREES. 


23 


2.  By  manuring  the  trees   the  bearing  year  with  bone  and  pot- 
ash, which  lias  a  tendency  to   produce   fruit  buds;    or  by  using 
nitrogenous   manures  the   unfruitful  year,  which  will  produce  a 
large  growth  of  wood  at  the  expense  of  the  fruit  buds. 

3.  Seeding  down  to  grass  the  bearing  year  might  produce  the 
same  result,  but   there  would  be   danger  that   the   crop   of  fruit 
and  the  crop  of  grass  taken  from  the  ground  the  same  year, 
might  result  in  too  great  a  check  upon  the  growth  of  the  tree. 

4.  Plowing  an  orchard  in  turf   the  unfruitful  year  would  also 
produce  the  desired  change. 

By  the  judicious  use  of  the  above  methods  the  fruit  grower 
may  control  very  largely  the  bearing  year  of  his  fruit  trees,  and 
be  able  to  produce  fruit  when  it  will  bring  the  highest  price. 

RE-GRAFTING  OLD  TREES. — Upon  many  farms  and  in  many 
orchards  are  often  found  healthy,  vigorous  trees  that  pro- 
duce fruit  of  little  value.  Such  trees  may  be  grafted  with  any 
more  desirable  variety,  and  in  a  few  years  will  produce  valuable 
fruit.  The  kind  of  grafting  to  be  employed  is  called  cleft-graft- 
ing (Fig.  24).  It  consists  in  first  cutting  off  as  many  branches, 
from  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter  (which  are  called  stocks),  as 
are  needed  to  make  a  full  head,  if  the  whole  top  is  to  be  grafted. 
This  number  will  vary  from  ten  to  perhaps  fifty  branches,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  tree.  After  all  the  stocks  have  been  cut 

I — *|#  off,  they    are    to    be    pared  smooth. 

.        _        i'liliMinin  i'l^  /  Then,    beginning    with    the    highest, 

^e  M        each  stock  is  split  with  the  blade  of 

^^  «        the   grafting-hook,  Fig.  19,  a.     The 

Fig.  19.  hook,  c,  is  to  hang  the  tool  by  when 

not  iii  use.  The  blade  L  now  driven  out  by  a  blow  upon  the  head 
of  the  wedge  6,  and  the  wedge  driven  into  the  cleft  (Fig.  20),  to 
keep  it  open  until  the  cioii  is 
prepared  and  inserted.  The 
cion,  Fig.  21,  a  piece  of  ma- 
ture wood  of  last  season's 
growth,  from  three  to  four 
inches  long,  with  from  three 
to  five  buds  upon  it,  is  then 
cut  wedge-shaped  in  two  ways, 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  21 ;  a  cross- 
section  of  the  wedge-shaped 
cion  is  shown  at  Fig.  22.  The 

cioii  must  be  cut  with  a  sharp,  Fig.  20. 

thin-bladed  knife,  with  one  quick,  clean  stroke  on  each  side. 

The  cion  is  then  inserted  into  the  cleft  with  the  cambium  or 
inner  bark  in  close  contact  with  the  cambium  or  inner  bark  of  the 


stock ;  the  thicker  part  of  the  cion  at  a,  Fig  22,  being  placed  out- 


24 


GRAFTING    EXPLAINED. 


ward,  so  that  when  the  wedge  in  the  cleft  is  withdrawn,  the 
pressure  of  the  stock  shall  be  directly  upon  the 
two  cambium  regions.  A  horizontal  view  of 
//v  the  completed  cleft-graft  is  represented  in  Fig. 
23,  and  a  view  in  perspective  in  Fig.  24.  In 
the  above  operation  the  important  points  to  in- 
sure success  are: 

1.  A  clean,  smooth  cut  upon  the  cion. 

2.  The  perfect  union  of  the  two  inner  barks 
or  cambiun  layers. 

3.  Rapid  work,  that  the  cut  parts  may  not  be 
exposed  long  to  the  air. 

After  the  grafts  have  been  put  in  and  the  wedge  driven  out,  the 
whole  cut  surface  must  be  covered  with  grafting  wax,  to  exclude 
both  air  and  moisture.  A  very  good  article  may  be  purchased  of 
seedsmen  and  dealers  in  nurservmen's  supplies,  or  it  may  be  made 


Fitf.  -'3. 

as  Allows:  Melt  together  equal  parts  of  rosin,  beeswax  and  tallow; 
oi  one-half  the  quantity  of  good  linseed  oil  in  place  of  the  tallow 
may  be  used.  When  cool,  the  mixture  should  be  pulled,  to  give 
it  toughness.  In  very  cool  weather  it  must  be  put  in 
slightly  warmed  water,  to  make  it  work  easily;  and  in 
warm  days,  it  should  be  taken  to  the  orchard  in  cold 
water.  Two  cions  are  generally  put  into  each  cleft, 
when  large  enough,  to  insure  success ;  but  when  growth 
of  both  has  become  certain,  one  should  be  cut  off. 

In  this  method  of  grafting  only  the  branches  used 
for  clefts  are  cut  away  the  first  season;  for,  to  cut 
them  all  away,  would  give  the  tree  too  severe  a  check. 
All  suckers  that  may  come  out  near  the  cleft  during 
the  summer  should  be  removed,  that  the  force  of  growth 
may  all  go  into  the  cion. 

The  best  time  for  grafting  is  just  as  the  buds  begin 
to  swell,  which,  for  the  Apple  and  pear,  is  from  April 
loth  to  May  loth  in  the  latitude  of  Boston,  or  between 


TIME   TO   GRAFT. 


the  forty-second  and  forty-third  parallels.  The  plum  and  cherry 
must  be  grafted  much  earlier  to  be  successful,  or  from^  April  1st 
to  April  loth,  according  to  the  season.  It  is  often  advisable  to 
graft  only  one-half  of  the  tree  the  first  year,  and  the  balance  the 
uext  season,  to  prevent  injury  from  too  severe  pruning. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    VARIETIES. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 


VARIETIES    OF   APPLES. 


NUMBER  OF  VARIETIES — SELECTION — NEW  VARIETIES — CLASSIFI- 
CATION OF  VARIETIES — STANDARD  SORTS  OF  SUMMER,  FALL 
AND  WINTER  APPLES — CRAB  APPLES — PROMISING  NEW  KINDS. 

At  the  present  time,  there  probably  are  not  less  than  one 
thousand  kinds  of  Apples  in  cultivation,  each  possessing1  some 
marked  characteristic  that  will  enable  it  to  claim  the  name  of  a 
distinct  variety.  The  variations  most  commonly  found  are  in 
form,  size,  color,  quality,  time  of  ripening,  habit  of  growth,  color 
of  shoots,  and  leaves,  and  their  liability  to  the  attack  of  insects 
or  diseases.  Of  the  numerous  varieties  that  have  been  described 
in  the  more  extensive  works  on  fruit  culture,  probably  not  more 
than  ten  can  be  said  to  be  thoroughly  hardy,  productive  and  sat- 
isfactory in  any  one  section  of  the  country.  In  the  West  many 
varieties  succeed  that  are  unprofitable  in  the  East,  and  vice 
versa. 

The  young  fruit  grower  must  decide  what  kinds  are  best  for 
liim  to  plant  by  consulting  his  markets,  as  to  what  kinds  are  in 
demand  at  paying  prices;  and  by  consulting  his  neighbors  and 
successful  fruit  growers,  as  to  what  kinds  are  best  adapted  to  his 
soil,  exposure,  etc. 

NEW  VARIETIES. — Few,  if  any,  of  the  varieties  now  in  cultiva- 
tion may  be  called  perfect;  and  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  for  the 
grower  to  try,  on  a  limited  scale,  a  few  of  the  newer  and  more 
promising  kinds  or  those  adapted  to  special  markets  or  soils,  to 
determine  if  some  specialty  may  not  be  grown  that  will  be  more 
profitable  than  the  common  kinds  that  everybody  grows.  But 
until  special  skill  is  obtained  in  growing  specialties,  or  until  it  is 
proven  beyond  a  doubt  that  a  new  variety  has  superior  merits,  or 
is  adapted  to  a  special  market,  it  is  best  to  confine  one's  main 
effort  to  the  growth  of  the  safe  and  sure  kinds. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   VARIETIES. 

For  convenience  of  description  and  the  determination  of  the 
different  kinds,  all  varieties  of  Apples  are  divided  in  three  classes 
as  follows;  Summer,  Autumn,  and  Winter,  although  it  may  be 


SUMMER    AND     FALL    APPLES.  27 

difficult  often  to  say  where  one  class  ends  and  the  other  begins, 
with  many  varieties. 

STANDARD  VARIETIES. — In  this  list  I  shall  only  include  a  few 
of  those  varieties  that  are  especially  desirable  and  profitable  in  a 
large  section  of  our  country,  and  especially  in  New  England  and 
the  Northern  Middle  States.  For  a  more  extended  description  of 
varieties  I  would  refer  the  reader  to  that  valuable  and  complete 
work,  '•Dowm'ng's  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America,"  and  the 
descriptive  catalogues  of  many  leading  and  reliable  nurserymen. 

STMMER    APPLES. 

Early  Harvest. — This  is  a  very  early  yellow  Apple,  of  medium 
size  and  fair  quality.  It  reaches  its  greatest  perfection  upon  a 
deep,  rich  and  moist  soil,  and  to  be  profitable  the  fruit  must  be 
freely  thinned.  It  should  be  carefully  picked  as  soon  as  fully 
grown,  and  taken  to  the  market  before  it  begins  to  mellow,  as  in 
that  condition  almost  every  touch  will  leave  a  brown  mark  upon 
the  skin,  which  injures  its  sale  very  much.  It  is  valuable  for 
dessert  or  for  cooking1,  and  is  in  season  in  July  and  August. 

Red  Astrachan. — A  large,  flattened,  red  Apple,  of  Russian  origin. 
The  flesh  is  very  white,  crisp  and  tender,  and  cooks  white;  but  is 
rather  acid  for  table  use.  Tree  hardy  and  productive;  August. 

Williams'  Favorite. — This  Apple  is,  for  the  table,  what  the  Red 
Astrachan  is  for  cooking  and  ripens  a  little  later.  It  is  a  large, 
oblong,  conical  Apple,  of  brilliant  color,  with  a  mild,  sub-acid, 
aromatic  flavor,  and  veined,  yellowish  flesh.  For  the  most  profit, 
the  fruit  must  be  thinned  while  small,  and  at  ripening  be  picked 
from  the  tree  as  it  colors;  for  if  picked  while  greeiij  it  fails  to 
color  up  well.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  open  in  growth  and  pro- 
ductive; August. 

Sweet  Bough. — A  large,  pale  yellow  Apple,  sweet,  juicy  and 
good;  valuable  for  home  consumption.  Sweet  Apples  are  not 
generally  in  good  demand  in  most  markets,  except  in  limited 
quantities. 

FALL   APPLES. 

Oldenburg  (formerly  called  Duchess  of  Oldenburg). — Of 
Russian  origin;  fruit  large,  roundish,  striped  yellow  and  red; 
valuable  for  table  or  cooking ;  generally  a  profitable  variety ;  tree 
productive  and  bears  early. 

Gravenstein. — Another  valuable  Russian  Apple  of  large  size, 
somewhat  flattened;  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  stripes  and 
splashes  of  light  red.  The  flesh  is  crisp,  juicy  and  of  the  best 
quality.  The  tree  is  remarkable  for  its  vigor  and  productiveness. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  and  profitable  of  fall  Apples ; 
September  to  November. 

Maiden's  Blush. — Perhaps  the  handsomest  Apple  in  cultivation; 
of  medium  size  and  nearly  round ;  skin  of  light  lemon  color,  with 
a  shade  of  crimson  often  covering  one-half  the  Apple  on  the  ex- 


28  WINTER    VARIETIES. 

posed  side.  The  flesh  is  white,  crisp,  juicy,  but  rather  acid  for 
table  use ;  tree  vigorous  and  productive  upon  good  soil ;  September 
and  October. 

Pumpkin  Sweet. — A  very  large  sweet  Apple,  oblate  in  form,  with 
more  or  less  rvisset  over  the  whole  surface.  In  quality  rather 
coarse,  but  sweet  and  cooks  well.  Tree  remarkable  for  its  vigor 
and  moderately  productive ;  September  and  October. 

Fall  Pippin. — A  large  Apple  somewhat  resembling  the  Rhode 
Island  Greening,  but  large,  with  a  white  flesh  and  often  with  some 
blush  upon  the  exposed  side.  Tree  vigorous  and  moderately 

Cluctive;     valuable,    especially    for    cooking;    September    to 
ember. 

WINTER    APPLES. 

Baldwin. — A  bright  red  Apple  of  medium  to  large  size,  of  fair 
quality  and  a  good  keeper.  Tree  vigorous,  productive  and  perhaps 
more  profitable  than  any  other  variety  for  the  general  market  and 
for  shipping.  Probably  more  trees  of  this  variety  have  been 
planted  in  the  Northeastern  and  North  Middle  States  in  the  past 
five  years  than  of  all  other  kinds  together. 

Ben  Davis. — A  large  red  or  striped,  late-keeping  Apple ;  oblong 
or  slightly  conical  in  form,  and  of  fair  quality.  It  originated  in 
the  West,  and  will  probably  prove  valuable  in  this  section. 

Fameuse  (or  Snow  Apple). — Fruit  of  medium  size,  of  dsep  red 
color,  and  with  a  remarkably  white  flesh;  very  juicy,  crisp  and  of 
the  finest  quality;  tree  vigorous  and  productive.  It  is  a  valuable 
dessert  apple,  and  when  grown  upon  rich  soil  and  the  fruit 
thinned,  is  of  good  size  and  profitable. 

King. — A  very  large,  red,  striped  Apple,  of  good  quality:  tree 
vigorous  and  productive.  Profitable  in  New  York  state,  but  not 
generally  tested  in  New  England. 

Lady's  Sweet. — One  of  the  best  winter  sweet  Apples ;  of  large 
size,  roundish,  conical  in  form  and  nearly  covered  with  red; 
sweet,  crisp,  tender  and  keeping  till  May.  Tree  moderate  in 
growth,  but  productive. 

Mother. — One  of  the  finest  dessert  Apples ;  of  large  size,  oblong, 
conical,  with  a  very  yellow,  spicy  flesh;  tree  moderately  vigorous 
and  productive;  November  to  January. 

Nonsuch. — A  large,  oblong  or  conical  early  winter  Apple,  of 
fine  sub-acid  flavor.  Tree  moderately  vigorous  and  remarkably 
productive;  a  valuable  dessert  and  market  fruit. 

Rhode  Island  Greening. — Everywhere  known  as  a  very  good 
early  winter  AppL;,  succeeding  almost  everywhere ;  excellent  both 
for  cooking  and  dessert.  Tree  rather  spreading  in  form,  vigorous 
and  productive. 

Roxbury  Russet. — A  very  acid,  nearly  round,  russet  Apple, 
valued  especially  for  its  late-keeping  qualities.  Tree  vigorous 
an'l  moderately  productive;  requires  a  deep,  rich,  moist  soil. 


CRAB    APPLES.  29 

Hyslop. — Very  large,  deep  crimson,  and  of  fair  quality;  very 
Lardy,  vigorous  and  productive. 

Transcendent. — A  very  large  variety  of  tlie  Siberian  crab; 
yellow  and  red  in  color  and  of  good  quality.  TLe  tree  is  remark- 
able for  its  great  vigor;  moderately  productive. 

Montreal  Beauty. — Very  large;  briglit  yellow  shaded  witL  red; 
of  fair  quality;  tree  vigorous  and  productive. 

Siberian  Red  and  Yellow. — Old  varieties,  liardly  superseded  by 
tlie  new  sorts  in  quality  and  productiveness. 

ADDITIONAL    VARIETIES. 

SUMMER.  AUTUMN.  WINTER. 

Beuoni,  Alexander,  Cooper's  Market, 

Early  Strawberry,       Porter,  Fallawater. 

Golden  Sweet,  Chenango  Strawberry.         Grimes'     Golden, 

Summer  Rose.  Lady  Apple, 

Tolman's  Sweet, 
Dauver's  Sweet. 

NEW    AND    PROMISING    VARIETIES. 

Haas,  Red  Bietigheimer,  Red  Russet, 

Suttoii  Beauty,  Wealthy,  Tufts'  Baldwin. 


30  HARVESTING     APPLES. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


GATHERING   AXD   XTOHIXd    APPLES. 

GATHERING SHAKING    OFF PICKING LADDERS ASSORTING — 

PACKING KEEPING COLD    STORAGE GENERAL    REMARKS. 

GATHERING. — Summer  and  autumn  Apples,  if  for  market, 
should  be  picked  and  sent  to  market  as  soon  as  mature,  on  ac- 
count of  their  perishable  nature.  Yellow  and  green  varieties 
require  greater  care  in  picking  and  packing  than  the  colored  soils, 
as  every  bruise  results  in  a  brown  mark  that  injures  their  sale. 
For  cooking  purposes,  all  the  fruit  upon  a  tree  may  be  picked  at 
once;  but  for  table  use  or  to  supply  fruit  stands,  some  varieties 
must  be  picked  only  as  they  color  upon  the  tree.  Such  varieties 
as  the  Gravenstein  and  Fameuse  are  often  very  profitable  if  kept 
in  cold  storage  until  December,  when  they  bring  very  high  prices. 
As  a  rale,  the  sooner  Summer  or  Autumn  Apples  are  in  the  mar- 
ket the  more  profitable  they  are  to  the  grower. 

Winter  Apples  should  not  be  picked  until  fully  grown,  but 
should  be  secured  before  severe  freezing  weather  takes  place, 
and  always  before  the  ripening  or  mellowing  process  begins,  to 
have  them  keep  well.  I  think  it  a  pretty  well  settled  question 
that  Apples  picked  early  in  autumn,?,  e^  on  or  before  October  first, 
will  keep  longer  than  those  picked  after  October  twentieth,  al- 
though they  will  not  be  of  as  good  quality  nor  as  large. 

No  Apples — Summer,  Autumn  or  Winter— -should  ever  be 
shaken  from  the  tree,  as  not  one  in  ten  thus  gathered  will  fail  to 
receive  some  injury.  The  fruit  should  be  picked  by  hand  into 
baskets  suspended  by  hooks  upon  the  ladder  or  branches;  or  iu  a 
bag  suspended  over  the  shoulder,  with  the  mouth  open 
in  front;  or  by  means  of  the  hand  pickers  shown  in 
Figs.  25  and  26.  For  getting  into  the  tops  of  tall  trees, 
the  long  ladder  is  indis- 
pensable. An  improved  .-•.  ••- _  _ 

form  is  shown  in  Fig.  27; 
the  sides  are  drawn  to-  Fi3<  -''• 

gether  at  the  end  so  that  the  point  may  be  thrust 
in  among  the  branches  without  the  ends  catching,  as 
with  the  common  ladder.  An  extension  ladder,  made 
so  as  to  fold  over  and  form  a  supporting  or  step-ladder 
.  (Fig.  28),  is  very  convenient  for  gathering  tho  f-^iit 


PACKING    FOR   MARKET.  31 

upon  the  lower  branches,  and  also  in  the  top.  The  ordinary 
step-ladders  are  also  very  serviceable. 

ASSORTING. — After  picking  the  fruit,  it  should  be  put  into 
piles  of  eight  to  ten  bushels  each  under  the  trees,  or  into  barrels 
and  taken  to  the  barn  or  shed  floor,  and  should  be  allowed 
to  undergo  the  sweating  or  curing  process  for  several  days. 
Some  growers  pick,  assort,  and  pack  the  fruit  at  once  in  the 
oivhard.  If  allowed  to  stand  several  days  in  a  cool  place 
before  heading  up,  this  may  not  be  an  objec- 
tionable practice;  but  if  the  head  is  put  in 
at  once,  the  fruit  will  not  generally  keep  as 
well  as  if  longer  exposed  to  the  air  after 
picking. 

The   Apples   should   be    sorted    into    two 
kinds,  the  No.  1,  or  firsts,  and  No.  2,  or  sec- 
onds.    This  is  absolutely  necessary  for  suc- 
cess,    The  No.  1  fruit  if  nicely  put  up,  will 
Fi;,M'7.ofteii  bring  more  in  the  market  than  if  both  Fiy.  28. 

kinds  were  sold  together,  for  it  only  requires  a  very  few  poor 
specimens  in  a  barrel  to  injure  the  sale  of  the  entire  lot.  The 
No.  1  fruit  should  be  large,  fair,  and  free  from  worm-holes. 
Some  attention  should  be  given  to  evenness  in  the  size  of  the  fruit 
in  each  barrel  or  lot. 

PACKING. — For  shipping  to  Europe,  or  sending  to  any  distant 
market,  there  is  no  package  equal  to  the  common,  clean  flour 
barrel.  The  full-sized  barrel,  holding  two  and  a  half  bushels,  is 
more  satisfactory  to  all  parties  than  the  small  "pony"  or  two- 
bushel  barrel.  Before  the  head  is  put  in,  the  barrel  must  be 
shaken  from  side  to  side,  to  settle  the  fruit  as  much  as  possible. 
Then  pack  evenly  011  top,  one  or  two  inches  higher  than  the  top 
of  the  staves,  and  the  head  is  then  pressed  in  place  by  means  of  a 
screw-press;  or,  better,  by  the  simple  l^ver-press,  illustrated  by 
Fig.  30,  Page  35.  The  hoops  are  now  driven  in  place,  and  the 
head  nailed  firmly.  Packed  in  this  way,  the  barrels  may  be 
tumbled  about  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  tho  worst  kind  of 
baggage-smasher  and  not  be  injured.  In  packing  for  shipping  to 
Europe,  the  bottom  layer  is  faced,  so  that  when  this  head  is  taken 
out  (and  the  barrel  is  opened  at  this  end  when  offered  for  sale), 
the  Apples  will  present  an  attractive  appearance.  Honest  pack- 
ing throughout  the  barrel  will  be  found  the  most  profitable  in  the 
long  run. 

KEEPING  FRUIT. — The  best  condition  for  the  preservation  of 
fruit  is  a  rather  moist  atmosphere,  writh  the  temperature  kept  as 
near  to  the  freezing  point  as  possible.  The  ordinary  winter  fruit 
is  commonly  kept  in  fair  condition  until  the  middle  of  March,  or 
sometimes  later,  at  a  much  higher  temperature,  in  the  common 
cellar. 

Perhaps  the  best  way  to  keep  winter  fruit,  with  the  ordinary 
facilities  of  the  farm,  is  to  put  it  in  ordinary  barrels  with  the 
heads  out ;  or,  in  large  shallow  boxes,  holding  from  three  to  five 


32  FRUIT    IN    COLD    STORAGE. 

bushels,  after  the  sweating  process  has  been  gone  through  with; 
placing  the  boxes  or  barrels  in  a  shed  on  the  north  side  of  another 
building  that  can  be  opened  at  night  tiud  closed  during  the  day ; 
or  into  a  cool,  airy  cellar  that  can  be  opened  and  closed  in  the 
same  way.  If  packed  in  barrels,  only  one  tier  can  well  be 
arranged  in  the  room,  except  by  putting  rails  or  narrow  boards 
across  the  tops  of  the  first  tier  of  barrels,  but  in  boxes  they  may 
be  arranged  as  in  Fig.  29,  in  several  tiers,  so  that  circulation  of 
air  may  be  obtained  over  the  fruit.  In  a  dry  place  the  barrel  has 


a 

Fig.  29. 

the  advantage  that  the  fruit  is  not  exposed  as  much  to  the  air; 
but  in  a  moist  place,  unless  the  temperature  is  kept  very  low,  the 
fruit  will  decay  much  more  rapidly  than  if  in  boxes. 

By  closing  the  building  or  cellar  during  the  day  time,  and  open- 
ing upon  cool  nights,  the  fruit  room  may  be  kept  much  below  the 
average  outside  temperature.  If  the  fruit  begins  to  decay,  it 
should  be  attended  to  at  once  and  be  carefully  assorted,  as  a 
single  decaying  specimen  very  soon  spreads  decay  to  the  others. 

COLD  STORAGE. — To  preserve  any  fruit  much  beyond  its  natural 
time  of  ripening  requires  special  appliances.  Cold  storage  houses 
are  now  much  used  by  shippers  and  fruit  dealers.  A  very  simple 
and  serviceable  cold  storage  house  may  be  constructed  at  a  small 
expense  in  the  following  manner:  Select  a  place  where  the  soil  is 
light  and  dry,  and  where  natural  surface  drainage  will  carry  the 
water  from  the  roof  readily  in  all  directions;  and  upon  a  brick  or 
stone  foundation  erect  a  building  just  like  a  common  ice  house, 
with  walls  two  feet  thick.  Between  the  boards  upon  the  walls 
fill  in  with  spent  tan,  sawdust  or  machine  shavings,  and  cover  the 
floor  overhead  with  one  or  two  feet  of  the  same  material.  Double 
doors  should  be  provided  at  each  end,  and  also  ventilators  at  the 
top,  with  double  covers.  The  fruit  room  may  be  a  lean-to  against 
the  wall  of  some  other  building,  thus  saving  the  construction  of 
one  wall.  The  temperature  is  kept  low  by  opening  during  cool 
nights  and  closing  during  the  day;  or,  if  very  low  temperature  is 
required,  ice  must  be  introduced  upon  the  floor  above.  In  that 
case,  the  floor  must  be  made  water-tight,  and  means  provided  for 
carrying  off  the  water  from  the  melting  ice.  During  the  winter 
no  heat  will  be  required  except  in  very  severe  weather,  when  the 
introduction  of  a  small  stove,  with  a  tile  chimney  passing  through 
one  of  the  ventilators,  may  be  necessary.  Thermometers  must  be 
kept  at  all  times,  both  inside  and  out,  for  constant  consultation. 

In  all  the  operations  of  gathering,  packing,  sorting,  keeping 
and  marketing  of  fruit,  success  must  depend  upon  the  vigilance 
and  good  judgment  of  the  owner.  A  single  hour  in  severe  weather, 
or  a  day  or  two  with  too  high  temperature,  will  often  ruin  the 
entire  product  of  a  year's  labor. 


EXTENT  OF  THE  EXPORT  TRADE.  33 


CHAPTER  X. 


MARKETING    THE  APPLE. 


LOCAL  MARKETS REPUTATION EXPORTING  APPLES — EXTENT    OF 

OUR     FOREIGN     TRADE PACKING     FOR     EXPORT HOW     TO     EX- 
PORT APPLES — EVAPORATING  FRUIT. 

By  far  the  larger  quantity  of  the  fruit  grown  in  this  country  is 
sold  in.  local  markets;  and  the  man  who  has  the  largest  quantity 
and  the  best  fruit,  can  command  the  best  patronage.  It  requires 
but  a  few  years  to  gain  a  reputation  for  the  production  of  good 
or  poor  fruit,  and  this  reputation  generally  determines  the  question 
of  profit  'or  loss  in  fruit  culture.  All  the  fruit  possible  should  be 
sold  in  the  local  markets,  as  it  saves  the  commission  of  the 
middle-man  to  the  producer  or  consumer,  which  is  a  clear  gain  to 
the  community. 

It  often  happens,  however,  that  the  crop  in  one  locality  is  much 
larger  than  can  be  consumed,  and  shipping  becomes  a  necessity, 
in  order  to  keep  up  the  price  above  the  cost  of  production. 
Shipping  to  Europe  has  become  a  very  extensive  business  within 
the  past  ten  years,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  summary  taken 
from  the  NEW  ENGLAND  HOMESTEAD  of  June  6,  1885: 

The  season  for  exporting-  Apples  from  America  to  England  opened 
August  If).  1884,  and  closed  May  It),  18X5.  being-  a  period  of  39  weeks. 
Last  year  the  season  closed  in  January,  owing  to  the  short  crop  in  this 
country.  The  exports  for  the  past  five  years  compare  as 


SEASON.  NO. 

1884-:..  787.785 

1883-4.  SI. 55^ 

1882-3,  3,395.504 

1881-2,  •jr'.D.LT.J 

1880-1,  1,328,80(5 

TOTAL   .SHIPMENTS   FROM  TOTAL   RECEIPTS   AT 

Boston,  :io<i.80<;           Liverpool,                  512,213 

New  York,  25(i.:'.:;j            London,                      117,947 

Portland,  91. 483            (Glasgow,                      141,035 

Montreal,  85.479            Hull.                                 2.224 

Halifax,  31), 073            Other  ports,                 14.346 

Annapolis,  8,612 


34  PRICES    IN    ENGLAND. 

BOSTON   SHIPMENTS   WEI-IK   DISTRIBUTED   AS   FOLLOWS: 

To  Liverpool,                   256,624           To  West  Hartlepool,  841 

"   Glasgow,                        19,969             "   Christiana,  375 

"   London,                          29,813             "   Bergen,  130 

"   Hull,                                 1,944             "   Gottenburg,  10 

"  Antwerp,  100 

The  average  weekly  shipments  from  October  1,  to  December  30,  were 
15,280  barrels  from  Boston  and  13,290  barrels  from  New  York;  largest 
weekly  shipments,  28,286  barrels  and  21,498  barrels  respectively.  Sixty 
per  cent  of  the  shipments  to  Liverpool  were  carried  by  the  Warren  line 
of  steamers,  the  rest  being  equally  divided  between  the  Leylaiid  and 
Cunard  lines.  The  Allan  line  carried  83  per  cent  of  the  Glasgow  ship- 
ments, the  rest  going  by  the  Anchor  line.  Of  the  shipments  to  London 
32  per  cent  went  via  Liverpool,  the  Furness  line  carrying  the  rest. 

Extreme  prices  were  paid  for  extra  Newtown  Pippins  and  other  early 
fall  Apples.  The  English  Apple  crop  was  short  and  the  demand  active 
for  our  fruit.  As  the  magnitude  of  our  1884  crop  became  apparent,  it 
was  hurried  over  to  Liverpool,  causing  something  of  a  glut  in  October. 
Lower  prices  were  realized  in  December  because  of  the  large  supply 
received  too  late  for  the  holiday  trade.  Some  of  the  shipments  in 
February  and  March  were  badly  frosted  and  landed  in  poor  condition. 

The  following  statement,  compiled  from  THE  HOMESTEAD'S  special 
reports  of  the  Boston,  New  York  and  Liverpool  Apple  markets,  shows 
the  average  price  paid,  per  barrel  for  "extra  fall"  Apples  at  each 
market  in  September  and  for  "No.  1  prime  Baldwins"  during  the 
ensiling  months : 

At  At  New  Av.  of  At  Liv-         Excess. 

Boston.  York.  both.  erpool. 

September,  $1.46  $1.65  $1.50  $4.50  $3.00 

October,  1.46  1.45  1.45  3.32  1.87 

November,  1.90  1.0:5  1.91  5.81  3.90 

December,  1.56  1.63  1.54  3.41  1.87 

January,  1.82  1.72  1.77  4.01  2.24 

February,  2.21  2.81  2.51  :;.T5  1.24 

March,  2,21  2.15  2.18  2.5S  .60 

April,  2.74  .">.<;•-!  :!.is  4.2(5  1.08 

Average,  1.92  2.12  2.00  3.95  1.95 

Most  of  the  Apples  exported  were  bought  up  by  speculators  for  $1  to 
$1.25  in  the  country,  and  cost  15  to  35c.  per  barrel  to  get  on  shipboard. 
Freights  from  Boston  to  Liverpool  have  been  two  to  three  shillings  per 
barrel,  averaging  about  two  shillings  six  pence,  or  60c.  The  brokers 
who  handle  the  sale  of  the  goods  charge  5  per  cent  commission  on  the 
gross  amount  of  the  sales,  or  20c.  per  barrel  on  a  shipment  that  sells  for 
an  average  of  $4  per  barrel.  Probably  $1.60  per  barrel  will  represent 
the  average  cost  to  speculators  of  Apples  on  shipboard  during  the  past 
season.  Add  60c.  for  freight  and  20c.  for  commission,  and  the  middle- 
man has  $2.40  to  deduct  from  the  price  received  in  Liverpool.  It 
appears  from  our  comparative  statement  above  that  the  average  price 
has  been  $3.95  per  barrel  in  Liverpool,  which  leaves  a  profit  to  the 
middleman  of  $1.55  per  barrel — more  than  the  producer  received.  To 
be  on  the  safe  side,  suppose  we  call  this  margin  only  $1  per  barrel  and 
allow  $87,785  for  shipments  that  resulted  in  loss,  for  shrinkage,  etc., 
then  on  the  total  exports  of  787,785  barrels  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
middlemen  have  made  an  even  $700,000. 

Now  if  farmers  had  followed  the  simple  directions  for  placing  Apples 
on  the  Liverpool  market,  which  THE  HOMESTEAD  gave  in  August 
last,  they  could  have  saved  the  larger  portion  of  this  amount.  We 


PREPARATION    FOR    EXPORT.  35 

know  several  who  did  follow  our  directions  and  realized  from  50c.  to 
SI.-")  per  barrel  more  for  their  crop  than  the  local  buyer  offered. 

I  also  append  a  description  of  the  best  method  of  preparing 
the  fruit  for  shipping,  taken  from  Herbert  Myrick's  valuable 
work,  "Money  Crops;  How  to  Grow  and  How  to  Sell  Them," 
published  by  the  Phelps  Publishing  Company,  Springfield,  Mass; 
price  50  cents: 

What  we  wish  to  emphasize  here  is  the  proper  preparation  for  market 
and  the  marketing1  of  this  great  money  crop.  Careful  sorting  into 
various  grades  of  quality  and  honest  packing  are  essential  to  the  lasting 
success  of  any  brand— for  we  assume  that  every  large  orchardist  or  apple 
packer  puts  his  special  brand  on  every  barrel  he  fills  and  strives  in  every 
way  to  g-et  up  a  reputation  for  that  brand.  In  the  Liverpool,  England, 
auction  market,  which  annually  consumes  from  one  to  three  million 
barrels  of  American  fruit,  certain  brands  have  become  so  well  known 
for  honest  packing  and  uniform  good  quality  as  to  command  one  to 
three  shillings  per  barrel  above  other  stock.  As  Liverpool  prices  are 
usually  high  enough  to  make  a  handsome  return  above  the  N  ew  York 
market,  and  as  the  foreign  demand  is  constantly  increasing,  the 
American  farmer  will  not  fail  to  give  more  attention  to  this  profitable 
crop.  Red  Baldwins  are  most  popular  in  England,  those  from  Nova 
Scotia  standing  first,  Canada  second  and  America  third,  this  classifica- 
tion being  due  to  Tiiethod  of  packing  largely.  The  plan  pursued  by 
the  most  successful  Nova  Scotia  fruit  growers  is  this : 

Take  the  hardwood  barrel  under  the  tree  for  convenience,  pick  the 
Apples  with  care,  place  them  in  without  sorting,  and  when  filled  head 
the  barrel  without  pressure.  Then  wheel  it  into  the  fruit  house,  and  let 
it  remain  there  during  the  sweating  or  curing  process.  When  ready  to 
make  a  shipment  the  process  of  sorting  begins.  Have  a  large  table  in 
the  fruit  house,  and  on  it  empty  the  barrels,  two  at  a  time.  Apples  can 
be  selected  much  better  in  this  way  than  if  picked  from  a  heap  on  the 
floor.  Aim  to  select  none  but  perfect  Apples,  but  as  those  of  every 
variety  have  different  degrees  of  perfection  in  size,  form  or  color,  make 
two  classes  and  mark  them  accordingly.  In  packing  or  filling  the 
barrel,  the  object  is  to  get  into  the  package  the  largest  quantity  with 
the  least  injury  to  the  fr-uit.  Apples  are  very  easily  injured  by  too 
much  pressure  applied  to  them  in  packing,  and  also  by  being  packed  too 

loosely.  When  the  barrel  is  properly 
filled,  instead  of  putting  on  the  pro- 
per head  in  the  first  place  and  ap- 
plying pressure  to  it,  use  a  false 


cushion  head  which  will  play  loosely 
;hion  head  is 


hi  the  barrel.  Tlis  cushion  head  is 
lined,  apiece  of  old  sacking  answer- 
ing well  for  the  lining.  Considera- 
ble pressure  can  be  applied  to  this 
cushion  head  without  injury  to  the 
fruit.  Place  this  cushion  upon  the 
Apples,  and  apply  the  press  (Fig.  30)  with  a  pressure  sufficient  to  get  the 
Apples  together  throughout  the  barrel.  Then  remove  the  false  head 
and  place  the  head  proper,  apply  the  press  and  complete  the  work.  In 
marking,  use  the  words  "choice"  or  "medium,"  as  the  case  may  be, 
stenciled  in  small  letters  on  the  barrel,  accompanying  the  name  of  the 
Apple.  Then  on  each  package  stencil  the  name  of  the  packer  in  full, 
as  a  guaranty  of  the  uniformity  of  the  package  throughout. 

Full  and  complete  instruction  as  to  exporting  Apples,  so  as  to 
save  to  the  farmer  the  enormous  profits  sometimes  made  by  the 
fruit  buyers  and  exporters,  are  also  given  in  the  work  above 
quoted. 


36  THE    APPLE    BORER. 


CHAPTER   XL 


INSECTS   INJURIOUS   TO    THE  APPLE. 


THE     ROUND-HEADED      BORER  —  FLAT-HEADED     BORER  —  WOOLLY 

LOUSE OYSTER-SHELL     HARK     LOUSE — TENT    CATERPILLAR — 

CANKER  WORM — APHIS — CODLIX  MOTH — MAGGOT — CURCULIO. 

THE  ROUND-HEADED  APPLE-BORER  (Saperda  bivittata)  (Harris). 
— This  is  one   of  the  most  injurious  insects  to   the  Apple  tree. 
The  perfect  insect,  Fig.  31,  a,  is  a  beetle  about  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  long*,  with  three  light-brown  and  two  creamy- white  stripes 
upon  its  wing  covers.      It  tries  in  the  night, 
laying  its  eggs  upon  the  trunk  in  crevuvs 
of  the  bark,  near  the  ground,  in  June  and 
July.       The    eggs    hatch,    and    the    young 
larvae  penetrate  the  bark,  feeding  upon  the 
sap  wood  for  nearly  two  years;  often  eating 
a  space  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter, 
Fi'^:j1'''-  and  in  young  trees  sometimes  nearly  gird- 

ling them.     Its  chips  are  packed  behind  it,  except  a  fe\v  during 
its  early  stages  of  working,  when,  by  careful  examination  of  the 

tree,  its  presence  may  be  discovered.     After       t 

the  second  year  it  generally  penetrates  the 

heart-wood,  sometimes  going  through  young 

trees ;  or,  in  larger  ones,  making  a  turn  and 

coming  near  the  bark,  where  it  under;, 

its  changes  (Fig.  31,  b,  shows  the  chrysalis 

and  comes  out  the  perfect  beetle  (Fig.  31, 

c. )  the  third  year,  leaving  a  clean  hole  about  i^g.  -i.  /,. 

three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

It  may  be  d'si-overed  in  the  tree  by  the  tine 
chips  it  exudes  while  very  young,  and  by  the 
liark  over  the  injured  part  turning  dark- 
brown,  and  sometimes  cracking. 

Remedy. — The  only  sure  remedy  is  to  ex- 
amine the  trees  carefully  once  or  twice  each 
season,  and  dig  out  the  borer  with  a  strong, 
pointed  knife. 

THE   FLAT-HEADED  APPLE-BORER  (Chrysobothris  femorata). — 
Th'is  beetle  is  much  smaller  than  the  last,  and  moves  in  the  day 


THE     WOOLLY    LOUSE. 


37 


time.     It  lays  its  eggs,  not  only  upon  the  trunk,  but  sometimes 
on  the  main  branches. 

The  flat-headed  larvse,  Fig.  32,  «,  works,  for  a  time,  in  the  sap- 
wood,  then  makes  an  upward  burrow,  and,  turning,  comes  out  in 
another  place,  just  under  the  bark, 
where  it  undergoes  its  changes.  Fig. 
32,  6,  shows  it  in  the  chrysalis  state: 
Fig.  32,  d,  is  the  perfect  beetle;  Fig. 
32,  c,  the  head  of  the  borer,  en- 
larged. It  is  uncertain  whether  the 
Flat-headed  Apple-borer  completes 
its  growth  and  transformation  in  one 
or  two  years. 

Remedy.  —  Its  presence  may  be 
known  in  the  tree  in  the  same  way 
as  the  Round-headed  Apple  Tree 
Borer,  and  the  same  remedy  must 
be  applied. 

The  use  of  washes  upon  the  trunk 
to  prevent  insects  from  depositing 
their  eggs  is  of  uncertain  value. 
Perhaps  the  best  of  these  is  a  solu- 
tion of  soft  soap  in  wh'.ch  has  been 

mixed  ,a    teaspoonful    of    crude    petroleum    to   the    gallon    or    a 
t'lblespoonful  of  carbolic  acid  or  coal  tar. 

THE  WOOLLY  LOUSE,  OR  APHIS  (Schizoneura  lanigem). — Al- 
though commonly  known  as  the  root  louse,  and  more  generally 
found  upon  the  roots  of  the  Apple,  it  often  causes  much  injury  to 
the  branches.  It  is  a  small  insect  (Fig.  33),  about  one-sixteenth 


Fig.  32,  a,  6,  c.  d. 


to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long,  and  more  or  less  covered  with  a 
cottony  or  nearly  white  substance,  whence  comes  its  commojt 
name.  It  attacks  the  branches  in  patches,  sucking  their  juices, 
and  causing  black,  canker-like  places,  which  spread,  often  destroy- 
ing the  limbs. 


38 


THE    TENT    CATERPILLAR. 


Remedy. — The  application,  with  a  stiff  brush,  of  the  solution  of 
soft  soap,  recommended  above,  will  probably  effectually  destroy 
them. 

THE  OYSTER-SHELL  BARK-LOUSE  (Aspi<1'm!<ix  mnckiformu) . — 
This  insect,  shown  in  large  numbers  in  Fig.  3-i,  is  injurious,  by 


Fia.  34. 

sucking  the  juices  of  the  branches  of  both  voting  and  old  trees. 
It  is  most  common  among  trees  weak  in  growth. 

Remedy. — It  may  be  destroyed  by  brushing  the  branches  over 
lightly  with  pure  linseed  oil,  or  with  the  solution  of  soap. 

THE  TENT  CATERPILLAR  (Clifsiocampa  Americana). — This  insect, 
so  familiar  to  every  one  in  its  larva  state,  is  illustrated,  in  all  its 
forms  by  Figs.  35  to  37.  Fig.  35  shows  the  male  fly,  Fig.  3(3  the 


Fit,'.  35. 


female,  and  Fig.  37  the  development — c,  the  eggs,  a,  b,  the  cat- 
terpillars  and  their  nest,  d,  the  cocoon.     Its  eggs,  Fig.  35,  c,  are 


Fig. 


laid  late  in  the  summer  around  the  small  twig  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  generally  from    two   to   three    hundred  in   a  cluster. 


THE    CANKER    WORM. 


39 


Here  they  remain  until  the  leaves  start  in  the  spring,  when  the 
worms  hatch  out  and  feed  upon  the  leaves,  and  cluster  in  the 
forks  of  the  branches,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

Remedy. — The  larvse  may  be  found  at  home  in  their  nests  early 
in  the  morning,  during   wet  weather,  and  in  the   middle   of  hot, 


sunny  days;  when  they  may  be  readily  removed  by  drawing  the 
web  around  them  and  crushing  it  with  the  foot.  In  the  Avinter, 
the  clusters  of  eggs  may  be  found  by  passing  under  the  tree  and 
looking  up  against  the  sky ;  when  they  may  be  removed  by  cutting 
off  the  'twigs  with  the  pruning  hook. 

THE  CANKER-WORM   (Anisoptery  vernatd). — Fig.  38 — a  male,  ft 
female.      This,  in  certain   sections,    is  undoubtedly   the    greatest 


pest  the  Apple  grower  has  to  contend  with;  yet,  knowing  its 
habits,  if  prompt  application  of  well-known  remedies  are  made, 
it  may  be  easily  and  cheaply  prevented  from  doing  harm. 

The  female,  which  has  110  wings,  comes  out  of  the  ground 
during  warm  weather,  when  there  is  no  frost  in  the  ground,  from 
December  to  May,  in  our  latitude,  and  lays  its  eggs  in  clusters 
upon  the  bark  of  the  trunk  and  branches.  As  soon  as  the  leaves 
begin  to  unfold,  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  larvae  feeds  upon  the 
foliage,  eating  all  but  the  midrifs,  until  the  trees  appear  as  if  fire 
had  run  through  them.  The  injury  thus  caused  is  such  that  often 
after  a  few  years  the  trees  gradually  die. 

Remedy. — Taking  advantage  of  the  habits  of  the  female,  which 


40  REMEDY    FOR     CANKER    WORMS. 

must  crawl  up  the  tree  to  deposit  its  eggs,  tar  or  printers'  ink  is 
applied  to  the  trees  after  December  1,  and  kept  fresh  by  renewal 
during  warm  days,  when  the  females  can  run;  thus  the  ascending 
insects  are  caught  and  destroyed.  This  is  an  effectual  remedy, 
but  requires  constant  attention  from  December  to  May,  whenever 
the  weather  is  warm  and  there  is  110  frost  in  the  ground. 

Another  effectual  remedy  is  to  encircle  the  tree  with  a  metallic 
trough  in  which  is  placed  cheap  oil,  like  crude  petroleum.  The 
first  cost  of  this  remedy  is  more  than  the  expense  of  tar,  but  it 
does  not  require  as  constant  attention. 

Within  the  past  two  or  three  years  the  attempt  to  prevent  the 
ascent  of  the  female  has  been  abandoned,  in  many  sections,  and 
the  larvae  are  destroyed  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched  out,  by  the 
mse  of  paris  green.  This  is  applied  in  water,  at  the  rate  of  one 
hundred  gallons  to  one  pound  of  paris  green,  with  the  common 
hand  or  garden  pump.  This  remedy  is  effectual,  and  is  cheaply 
applied  by  placing  barrels  of  the  mixture  upon  a  low  wagon  and 
driving  among  the  trees.  If  the  trees  are  thoroughly  sprayed 
and  no  rain  follows  for  several  days,  one  application  is  generally 
effectual,  but  sometimes  a  second  or  third  syringing  is  required. 
The  principal  objection  to  this  remedy  is  in  the  danger,  to  both 
man  and  animals,  in  the  use  of  so  dangerous  a  poison. 

A  safe  and  equally  as  effectual  a  remedy  is  found  in  the  Pyrethrum 
or  Persian  insect  powder.  If  used  in  the  same  w:iy  as  the  paris 
green,  it  will  destroy  the  larva?  while  young,  and  will  paralyze  the 
larger  ones  so  that  they  will  fall  at  once  to  the  ground.  As  the 
more  mature  larva?  will  attempt  to  crawl  back  to  the  tree,  a  single. 
application  only  of  the  band  of  ink  is  necessary  to  catch  and 
destroy  them.  This  powder  is  />"/;/>r////  harmless  to  man  or  ani- 
mals, is  as  effectual  as  the  paris  green,  and  should  be  used  in 
preference  to  that  deadly  arsenical  preparation. 

THE  APPLE  APHIS  OR  PLANT-LOUSE  (Aphis  mali). — This  i-s  a 
small,  green  tly  (Fig.  ,'>9)  (very  similar  to  the  common  plant- 


Fig.  39. 


louse  which  attacks  House  plants),  that  often  appears  in  large 
numbers  upon  the  young  shoots,  injuring  them  by  sucking  out 
their  juices.  It  is  destroyed  by  the  application  of  a  strong 
solution  of  whale-oil  soap  and  tobacco  water,  or  by  the  application 
of  the  pyrethrum  powder  just  at  night. 


THE   CODLIN    MOTH. 


41 


THE    CODLIN   MOTH    (Carpocapsa  pomonella ) . — Fig.  40  is  an 
Apple  injured  by  the  codlin  moth ;  e,  larvse  escaping ;  f,  moth  at 


Fig.  40. 

rest;  y,  same  with  its  wings  spread;  d,  chrysalis.  This  is  perhaps 
the  most  injurious  insect  that  attacks  the  fruit  of  the  Apple. 
It  flies. at  night,  and  lays  its  eggs  in  the  calyx  or  blossom-end  of 
the  fruit  after  it  reaches  a  half  inch  in  diameter.  The  egg 
hutches,  and  the  fruit  is  destroyed,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  At 
maturity,  the  worm  comes  from  the  Apple  and  forms  its  cocoon 
under  the  bark  of  the  tree,  upon  boards,  fences  and  other  dry 
places. 

Remedy. — Pasturing  the  orchard  with  swine  or  cattle  will 
destroy  many  of  the  worms  that  fall  with  the  fruit,  while  a  large 
number  of  fowls  in  the  orchard  will  generally  attend  to  all  that 
may  come  out  of  the  Apples  before  they  fall.  The  cocoons  may 


also  be  trapped  under  bands  of  straw  or  cloth  put  around  the 
trunks  of  the  trees,  and  examined  occasionally  during  the  summer. 


42 


APPLE    MAGGOT — PLUM    WEKVIL. 


A  second  brood  often  comes  out  in  the  early  autumn,  which 
attacks  the  winter  fruit. 

THE  APPLE  MAGGOT  (Tripeta pomonella). — This  insect  has  so 
increased  within  the  past  few  years  as  to  threaten  the  total 
destruction  of  the  "Apple  crop  in  some  sections.  The  perfect 
insect  is  a  small  fly,  (Fig.  41,  6),  resembling,  the  common  house 
fly,  but  is  much  smaller.  As  the  Apple  approaches  maturity,  the 
fly  lays  its  eggs  in  the  fruit  by  puncturing  the  skin.  The  larva, 
or  maggot,  (Fig.  41, «),  of  which  there  .are  often  several  in  one  apple, 
make  burrows  in  all  directions,  rendering  the  fruit  worthless. 

Remedy. — No  remedy  but  the  destruction  of  the  infected  crop 
by  feeding  to  swine  or  cattle  has  been  discovered  as  yet.  This 
will  be  effectual  if  all  the  fruit  is  destroyed  as  it  falls  from  the 
tree. 

THE  PLUM  WEEVIL,  OR  CURCULIO  (Canotrachelus  nenuphar). — 
Fig.  42 — a,  the  perfect  insect,  much  enlarged;  Z>,  natural  size,  at 


work  upon  the  plum;  c,  larva?;  d,  injured  fruit.  Until  recently, 
it  was  generally  supposed  that  all  the  worms  found  in  the  Apple 
were  the  larvje  of  the  codlin  moth.  My  attention  was  attracted 
two  years  ago  to  the  large  number  of  Apples  falling  from  the 
trees  early  in  the  summer.  Upon  examination  it  was  found  that 
nearly  every  one  bore  the  crescent-shaped  mark  of  this  insect,  and 
most  of  them  contained  the  worms  of  the  plum  weevil.  In  the 
examination  of  nearly  one  thousand  fallen  Apples,  only  eight  or 
ten  contained  worms  that  did  not  bear  the  marks  of  this  insect. 

Remedy. — The  only  effectual  remedy  for  this  injury  to  the 
Apple  is  the  same  as  for  the  codlin  moth  and  Apple  maggot. 

LABELS  FOR  FRUIT  TREES. — Apple  trees  and  all  fruits  should 
be  carefully  labelled,  that  the  owner  may  not  forget  the  names  of 
the  kinds,  and  also  that  any  subsequent  possessor  may  know  with- 
out doubt  what  varieties  he  is  growing.  Most  of  the  confusion  in 


LABELS  FOR  FRUIT  TREES.  43 

names  of  fruits  and  plants  results  from  forgetfulness  and  guess 
work. 

The  best  label  that  can  be  used  is  the  triangular  zinc,  six  to 
eight  inches  long,  one  inch  wide  at  one  end  and  tapering  to  a 
point  at  the  other,  and  written  upon  with  a  common  lead  pencil. 
A  name  written  upon  such  a  piece  of  zinc,  slightly  corroded  (old 
zinc  is  better  than  new)  will  last  a  lifetime  and  increase  in  dis- 
tinctness from  year  to  year. 

The  label  is  attached  to  the  tree  by  winding  the  small  end 
around  a  small  branch.  As  the  branch  increases  in  size  the  zinc 
uncoils  so  as  not  to  cut  into  it,  and  when  the  branch  becomes  too 
large  to  retain  it,  the  label  is  attached  to  a  smaller  one.  Any 
label,  however,  is  liable  to  become  displaced  by  wind,  teams,  etc. ; 
and  if  perfect  security  is  desired,  a  plan  of  the  orchard  or  garden 
must  1>  •  made  and  the  names  of  the  varieties  recorded  in  their 
proper  places.  As  long  as  the  plan  is  preserved  there  can  be  no 
uncertainty  as  to  the  location  and  names  of  varieties. 


44  THE    PEAR — INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


THE  PEAR  (PYRUS  COMMUNIS). 


ITS    HEALTHFULNESS  —  ORIGIN — VALUE —  IMPROVEMENT —  PROPA- 
GATION— THE  NURSERY — THE  ORCHARD — FORMING  THE  HEAD — 

VARIETIES — HARVESTING —  MARKETING PRESERVING — INSECT 

PESTS — DISEASES . 

Although  not  generally  considered  one  of  the  most  healthful  of 
fruits,  the  Pear  is,  from  its  peculiar  flavor  and  qualities  known  as 
mtlting,  buttery,  sugary,  etc.,  a  fruit  much  liked  by  most  people; 
eaten  in  its  fully  ripe  condition  and  in  moderate  quantities  it  is  a 
healthful  and  delicious  fruit. 

In  its  natural  and  unimproved  condition,  the  fruit  was  hard  and 
composed  almost  entirely  of  gritty  wood  cells,  known  to  botanists 
as  sclerogenous  cells,  and  a  harsh  and  astringent  juice  that  was 
anything  but  digestible,  and  which  led  that  ancient  writer,  Pliny, 
to  say,  "All  varieties  whatsoever  are  poor  meat  unless  baked  or 
boiled."  Until  fully  ripe,  most  varieties  of  Pears  have  more  or 
less  of  the  above  qualities,  and  should  be  eaten  with  moderation, 
unless  cooked.  For  preserves  no  fruit  is  superior  to  the  Pear. 

Like  the  apple,  the  Pear  is  a  native  of  Middle  and  Northern 
Europe.  It  is  a  tree  that  sometimes  in  its  most  natural  condition 
lives  to  a  greater  age  than  the  apple,  but  is  much  more  liable  to 
the  attack  of  disease.  The  Pear  stands  third  in  the  list  of  large 
fruits,  in  the  value  of  its  products.  The  methods  of  improvement 
are  the  same  with  the  Pear  as  with  the  apple.  Perhaps  about 
an  equal  number  of  good  varieties  of  Pears  may  be  credited  to 
improvement  by  hybridization  and  selection;  while,  like  the  ap- 
ple also,  many  of  the  best  varieties  of  Pears  are  chance  seedlings, 
the  origin  of  which  no  one  can  tell. 

PROPAGATION. — It  is  propagated  by  root-grafts  and  by  budding. 
The  seedlings  used  for  stocks  are  generally  imported  from  France, 
where  they  are  grown  in  large  quantities  and  to  great  perfection. 
Some  nurserymen  are  successful  in  growing  their  own  seedlings 
from  imported  seed.  The  best  seed  is  that  obtained  from  vigor- 
ous, natural  seedlings.  The  seed-bed  should  be  in  a  rich,  warm, 
new  soil,  rather  moist  than  otherwise.  The  seedlings  are  gener- 


PROPAGATION.  45 

ally  liable  to  the  attack  of  the  leaf  blight  that  stops  their  growth 
in  July.  For  this  reason,  the  bed  must  be  made  unusually  rich 
with  an  abundance  of  well-rotted  stable  manure,  and  a  liberal 
supply  of  bone  and  potash.  The  seedlings  should  have  the  same 
treatment  as  the  apple  in  grafting  and  when  planted  for  budding. 
The  best  results  are  generally  obtained  from  budding,  although 
some  nurserymen  are  very  successful  with  root-grafting.  For 
the  best  results,  the  grafts  should  be  made  early  in  winter,  and 
greater  care  is  required  in  keeping  them  until  spring. 

NURSERY. — The  soil  for  the  growth  of  the  tree  iii  the  nursery 
should  be  deep,  rich,  and  rather  moist,  but  well  underdrained, 
naturally  or  otherwise,  and  kept  thoroughly  cultivated.  The 
seedlings  and  root-grafts  are  planted  in  the  same  way  as  the  ap- 
ple and  the  same  distance  apart.  At  from  two  to  four  years  from 
budding  the  trees  are  ready  for  transplanting  to  the  orchard. 

THE  ORCHARD. — For  the  best  results,  land  like  that  described 
for  the  nursery  should  be  selected.  The  Pear  will  not  prove 
profitable  upon  such  a  great  variety  of  soils  as  the  apple,  but 
good  fruit  may  be  obtained  in  limited  quantities  even  in  poor  soil, 
if  an  abundance  of  plant-food  is  supplied,  and  mulch  provided  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  moisture. 

The  preparation  of  the  land,  the  tree,  and  the  methods  of 
planting  are  the  same  as  for  the  apple,  to  which  the  reader  is 
referred. 

The- Pear  tree  naturally  grows  in  a  pyramidal  form,  and,  while 
it  sometimes  grows  as  large  in  diameter  as  the  apple  tree,  it  is 
more  compact  and  requires  less  distance.  Fifteen  by  twenty  feet 
are  the  best  distances,  according  to  the  variety  and  method  of 
training'.  Such  varieties  as  the  Seckel,  Giffard,  Bartlett,  etc., 
and  other  varieties  if  unpruned  at  the  ends,  and  most  other 
kinds,  if  kept  well  headed-m,  need  not  have  more  than 
the  former  space,  while  Clapp's,  Boussock,  etc.,  should  not 
be  planted  less  than  the  latter  distance. 

FORMING  THE  HEAD. — During  the  first  few  years  of  its  growth 
after  planting  in  the  orchard,  the  Pear  tree  has  a  tendency  to 
growth  in  only  two  or  three  leading  shoots.  All  but  one  of  these 
must  be  pinched  in  at  once,  and  the  centre  one  or  leader  must  be 
pinched  a  little  later  and  be  forced  to  throw  out  laterals.  In  the 
formation  of  the  head,  the  branches  should  be  distributed  along 
the  leader,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13,  Page  15.  Close  attention  must 
be  given  to  prevent,  by  pinching,  any  branches  out-growing  the 
leader,  or  from  growing  more  upon  one  side  than  the  other. 

In  land  that  must  be  cultivated,  the  head  should  be  formed  at 
least  five  feet  high,  to  enable  teams  to  work  readily  under  the 
branches. 

THE  AGE  OF  BEARING. — The  Pear  tree  may  be  expected  to 
produce  paying  crops  of  fruit  from  five  to  eight  years  from 
planting  in  the  orchard,  according  to  the  variety.  Unless  at- 
tacked by  disease  it  will  bear  for  fifty  years  and  upward.  Like 


46  VARIETIES    OF    PEARS. 

the  apple  it  generally  produces  fruit  only  on  alternate  years,  un- 
less the  land  is  kept  quite  rich.  The  cause  of  this  habit  is  the 
same  as  with  the  apple,  and  the  remedies  the  same. 

VARIETIES. — In  form,  size,  and  color  of  fruit,  the  Pear  does 
not  vary  as  much  as  the  fruit  of  the  apple,  but  in  the  color  of 
the  branches  and  the  leaves  and  its  habit  of  growth,  the  variations 
are  much  greater;  so  much  so,  that  most  varieties  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  expert  upon  examination  of  the  tree  alone. 
Varieties  may  be  classed  as  Summer,  Autumn  and  Winter. 

SUMMER  PEARS. — These,  as  a  rule,  are  small  in  size  and  very 
parishable.  Among  ths  best,  in  order  of  ripening,  are : 

Osband's. — Small,  nearly  round;  skin  green,  changing  to  yellow 
when  ripe,  with  a  brownish  cheek;  valuable  only  for  home  con- 
sumption. 

Giffard. — Medium  size ;  in  form  and  color  like  the  Bartlett,  but 
with  more  blush  upon  the  exposed  side;  tree  of  rather  slender 
growth  and  moderately  productive;  of  gooi  quality  and  one  of 
the  most  profitable  early  Pears. 

Rostiezer. — Of  fine  quality;  small  in  size,  acute  pyriform;  in 
color  resembling  the  Seckel ;  one  of  the  best  in  quality,  but  the 
tree  is  of  very  straggling,  irregular  growth. 

Clapp's. — A  very  large  Pear  of  fair  quality,  but  has  the  fault 
of  rotting  at  the  core  if  ripened  upon  the  tree;  obtuse  pyriform; 
yellow,  with  a  brownish  red  blush  upon  one  half.  The  tree  is 
vigorous  and  productive,  coming  early  into  bearing.  The  fruit 
must  be  picked  at  least  two  weeks  before  it  would  naturally  ripen 
upon  the  tree. 

AUTUMN  PEARS. 

Bartlett. — This,  among  the  Pears,  is  what  the  Baldwin  is  among 
the  apples,  and  the  Concord  among  the  grapes.  The  fruit  is  large, 
of  fair  quality  and  never  rots  at  the  core.  The  tree  is  moderate- 
ly vigorous,  and  so  productive  that  it  is  liable  to  injury  by  over- 
bearing; a  fault  that  must  be  remedied  by  thinning,  and  by 
giving  an  abundance  of  plant  food  the  bearing  year.  It  is  in  sea- 
son in  September. 

Bosc. — A  large,  light  russet  Pear,  with  a  large  body  and  long 
neck,  to  which  is. attached  a  long  stem;  flesh  white,  juicy,  and  of 
fine  quality.  The  fruit  is  so  large  and  heavy  that  it  is  liable  to 
drop,  and  the  tree  should  be  trained  low.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
fall  Pears,  ripening  in  October  in  our  latitude. 

Seckel. — Small,  of  the  best  quality;  obtuse  pyriform;  light  cinna- 
mon russet,  with  a  brownish  red  blush  on  the  exposed  surface. 
To  be  of  good  size  the  fruit  must  be  thinned.  The  tree  is  a  vig- 
orous and  compact  grower,  and  regularly  productive,  ripening  in 
October. 

Sheldon. — Nearly  round,  russet,  of  large  size,  juicy,  sweet  and 
good.  The  tree  is  moderately  vigorous  and  productive;  one  of 


HARVESTING    AND    MARKETING.  47 

the  best  in  cultivation.  The  color  of  the  fruit  is  rather  against  it 
for  market,  but  when  it  becomes  known  it  brings  good  prices.  It 
is  in  season  from  October  to  November. 

Anjou. — Large,  obtuse  pyriform;  greenish  yellow  when  ripe, 
with  a  slight  blush  upon  the  sunny  side ;  flesh  white,  juicy,  melt- 
ing and  rich ;  tree  vigorous,  hardy  and  moderately  productive. 
The  fruit  is  the  finest  of  its  season — from  November  to  De- 
cember. 

WINTER     PEARS. 

Lawrence. — Medium  to  large;  resembling  the  Bartlett  in  form, 
but  rather  shorter  and  of  a  light  yellow  color;  flesh  juicy,  sweet 
and  good;  tree  moderately  vigorous  and  productive.  It  is  one  of 
the  best  early  winter  Pears,  coming  in  season  in  December. 

Dana's  Hovey. — A  small  Pear,  resembling  the  Seckel  somewhat 
in  color  and  quality;  round  or  obovate  in  form.  It  is  perhaps 
the  best  winter  Pear  in  quality,  but  its  size  makes  it  objectionable 
for  market. 

ADDITIONAL    VARIETIES    OF    VALUE. 
SUMMER.  AUTUMN.  WINTER. 

Bloodgood,  Howell,  Josephine  of  Malines, 

Dearborn,  Flemish,  Easter, 

Tyson,  Boussock,  Cornice, 

Souvenir  du  Congres.  Clairgeau.  Vicar. 

NEW  VARIETIES  OF    PROMISE. 

Frederick  Clapp,  President  Clark. 

GATHERING  AND  RIPENING. — All  varieties  of  Pears,  with  one 
or  two  exceptions,  are  improved  by  picking  from  the  tree,  from 
one  to  two  weeks  before  they  would  naturally  soften.  Varieties 
like  Clapp's  and  some  others  that  rot  at  the  core,  must  be  picked 
as  early  as  two  weeks,  while  the  Bartlett  may  be  allowed  to  grow 
longer.  The  longer  a  variety  can  remain  upon  the  tree  the  larger 
they  become,  as  all  fruits  increase  very  rapidly  in  size  just  before 
the  mellowing  process  begins. 

The  best  way  to  ripen  the  Pear  to  have  it  the  most  highly  col- 
ored and  of  the  best  quality,  is  to  place  them  in  shallow  trays  or 
boxes  in  a  dark,  cool  room. 

MARKETING. — The  early  varieties  of  this  fruit  are  very  perish- 
able and  should  be  marketed  as  soon  as  ripe.  Clapp's,  Bartletts 
and  Boscs  brought  into  market  a  little  before  their  season,  by 
picking  early  and  hastening  the  ripening  process  in  a  warm,  close 
room,  often  command  a  much  better  price  than  if  sold  when  the 
main  crop  naturally  comes  in.  So  such  varieties  as  the  last  two 
autumn  kinds  and  Sheldon,  Anjou,  etc.,  if  kept  a  month  or  two 
in  cold  storage,  sometimes  sell  at  double  the  price  received  at  the 
natural  time  of  ripening.  The  grower  who  is  alive  to  the  times 
will  soon  learn  whether  he  can  get  a  larger  income  by  selling 


48  INSECTS    AND     DISEASES. 

«arly  or  late,  and  must  be  prepared  to  do  either  as  his  best   judg- 
ment shall  dictate. 

PRESERVING. — Summer  and  Autumn  varieties  cannot  be  pre- 
served much  beyond  their  natural  season  without  considerable 
expense,  but  late  fall  and  winter  kinds  may  be  kept  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  apple.  For  shipping  to  a  distant  market,  the  bar- 
rel is  the  best  package,  unless  the  fruit  is  soft,  when  they  must 
l)e  sent  in  crates  or  baskets.  For  storing  and  keeping  the  fruit, 
shallow  boxes  are  much  better  than  the  barrel.  Until  the  ripen- 
ing process  begins,  the  fruit  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  airy  place, 
as  they  are  less  liable  to  decay  than  if  in  a  close  atmosphere. 

INSECT  PESTS. — All  the  insects  described  as  injurious  to  the 
apple,  with  the  exception  of  the  canker-worm,  are  more  or  less 
injurious  to  the  Pear,  and  the  same  remedies  should  be  applied. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  are  the  Pear-tree  Psylla  (Pst/ll«  />///'')• 
This  is  a  very  minute  insect  that  punctures  the  branches 
and  leaves  in  May,  causing  an  exudation  of  juice  which  attracts 
numerous  ants,  flies  and  wasps  which  feed  upon  the  juices  that  es- 
cape. The  exudation  dries  and  becomes  sticky,  and  the  particles 
of  dust  in  the  atmosphere  adhere  to  the  shoots  and  leaves,  so  that 
during  the  latter  part  of  summer  the  whole  tree  has  a  blackened, 
dirty  appearance.  A  diluted  emulsion  of  kerosene  and  soft  soap 
is  an  effectual  remedy.  This  is  described  by  Prof.  Riley,  as  fol- 
lows: Take  two  parts  of  kerosene  and  one  of  soft  soap,  and 
churn  or  stir  until  a  kind  of  butter  is  produced.  This  prepara- 
tion may  be  diluted  with  ten,  twenty  or  fifty  parts  of  water, 
according  to  the  delicacy  of  the  plant  or  the  insect  to  be 
destroyed. 

A  few  other  insects  are  slightly  injurious  to  the  Pear,  but  a 
description  is  not  deemed  important  in  so  condensed  a  work 
as  this. 

For  a  detailed  description  of  all  insects  injurious  to  fruits  and 
fruit  trees,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Sounders'  "Insects  Injurious 
to  Fruits." 

DISEASES. — Fire  Blight. — This  disease  is  often  very  destructive 
to  the  Pear,  and  its  effect  is  to  cause  the  leaves,  shoots,  and  some- 
times the  entire  tree — but  more  often  only  a  portion  of  it — to 
turn  dark  brown  or  black,  as  if  scorched  by  fire.  It  always  fol- 
lows some  cause  of  weakness,  as  a  late  growth  in  the  fall,  caused 
by  the  use  of  coarse  manure  or  late  cultivation,  when  the  shoots 
are  injured  by  cold;  or  after  bearing  a  heavy  crop  of  fruit;  or  it 
may  result  from  an  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  or  from  the  unnatural 
growth  caused  by  plowing  after  the  land  has  been  in  turf  for  some 
time;  or  from  seeding  down  with  a  grain  crop.  In  almost  every 
case  that  has  come  under  my  observation,  some  reasonable  expla- 
nation may  be  given  for  its  appearance.  The  disease  is  of  a 
fungoid  or  algoid  nature,  and  only  attacks  trees  that  have  become 
weakened  in  some  way. 

The  only  remedy  is,  first,  to  cut  away  the  diseased  parts  as  soon 


THE     PEAR     LEAF     BLIGHT.  49 

as  the  disease  appears ;  and  by  the  use  of  the  proper  kind  of  food 
and  cultivation,  obtain  a  healthy  growth.  If  the  soil  is  rich,  do 
not  cultivate  and  apply  potash;  if  poor,  use  potash,  fine  ground 
bone  and  some  nitrogenous  material  in  the  fall  or  early  spring. 

Leaf  Blight. — This  is  a  disease  that  attacks  the  leaves  of  3~oung 
seedlings  and  sometimes  of  established  trees.  It  is  a  fungus 
growth,  similar  to  the  grape,  strawberry  and  other  leaf  diseases, 
and  is  remedied  only  by  good  cultivation  and  proper  food.  It  of- 
ten comes  upon  the  Pear  seedlings  planted  in  the  nursery  in  July, 
when,  upon  the  first  indication  of  its  presence,  budding  must  begin, 
or  the  leaves  will  soon  fall  off  and  budding  cannot  be  done  at  all 
until  the  following'  season. 

4 


50  THE    PEACH. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


THE  PEACH  (PRUNUS  PERSIC  A). 

IMPORTANCE  —  ORIGIN  —  PROPAGATION  —  ORCHARD  —  FERTILIZA- 
TION— AGE  OF  BEARING — WINTER  PROTECTION — THINNING  THE 
FRUIT — VARIETIES — GATHERING MARKETING  —  INSECTS — DIS- 
EASES— ROT. 

Iii  importance,  as  a  money  crop,  the  Peach  stands  second  in  the 
list  of  large  fruits.  It  is  a  healthful  and  nutritive  fruit,  when 
perfectly  ripe,  and  liked  by  all.  To  reach  its  best  condition,  the 
Peach  must  be  ripened  upon  the  tree,  but  when  shipped  a  long 
distance,  it  cannot  be  allowed  to  ripen  before  picking. 

ORIGIN. — The  Peach  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Asia, 
from  the  bitter  almond.  It  has  long  been  cultivated  in  Southern 
Asia,  China,  and  Southern  Europe,  and  is  much  esteemed  as  an 
article  of  food  and  luxury.  Its  successful  cultivation  has  always 
been  confined  largely  to  the  Southern  temperate  zone,  as  the  tree 
is  naturally  tender  and  liable  to  injury  from  sudden  climatic 
changes.  In  favorable  locations  and  under  the  proper  treatment 
it  is,  however,  often  a  profitable  crop  even  north  of  the  42d 
parallel. 

PROPAGATION. — It  is  propagated  by  budding  upon  seedlings 
that  are  grown  in  the  nursery,  instead  of  the  seed-bed,  as  with 
the  apple  and  pear.  The  seeds  that  produce  the  best  stocks  are 
those  from  strong,  healthy,  natural,  new-budded  seedlings.  Most 
of  the  seed  used  by  nurserymen  is  obtained  from  Virginia  and 
Tennessee,  where  natural  fruit  is  largely  grown,  and  where  it  is 
claimed  the  disease  known  as  the  "yellows"  has  not  made  its  ap- 
pearance. 

The  pits  may  be  planted  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring.  In 
fall  planting  they  should  be  covered  about  two  inches  deep,  if  the 
suil  is  heavy,  or  three  inches  if  light,  in  rows  four  feet  apart  and 
three  or  four  inches  in  the  row.  In  spring  planting,  the  pits  are 
"bedded"  the  fall  previous;  that  is,  placed  in  a  bed  about  six  or 
eight  inches  deep  in  layers  first  two  inches  thick  of  seeds,  then 
two  inches  of  soil,  and  so  on  until  all  the  pits  are  put  in;  making 
the  bed  from  six  to  ten  inches  thick.  The  action  of  the  frost 
cracks  the  stones  so  that  the  kernels  will  most  of  them  shell  out 


BUDDING    THE    PEACH.  51 

when  they  begin  to  germinate  in  the  spring.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  the  action  of  the  frost  is  not  sufficient  to  crack  the 
stones,  when  it  must  be  done  by  a  slight  blow  with  a  light  ham- 
mer upon  the  edge  of  the  pit,  placed  upon  a  block  of  wood.  The 
kernels  should  be  planted  in  rows  the  same  distance  as  for  fall 
planting,  and  be  covered  one  inch  deep.  The  advantage  of  fall 
planting  is  that  it  requires  less  labor,  but  many  of  the  pits  will 
fail  to  germinate,  and  where  small  quantities  are  grown  this 
method  is  not  to  be  recommended.  In  spring  planting,  every  kernel 
will  generally  germinate  and  the  nursery  rows  will  be  more  fully 
stocked  than  if  the  uncracked  pits  were  planted  in  the  fall. 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  good  trees  is  a  medium 
sandy  or  gravelly  loam.  The  fertilizer  used  should  be  well  de- 
composed stable  manure,  in  moderate  quantities,  with  fine  ground 
bone  and  potash.  The  land  should  not  be  too  rich,  as,  if  the 
growth  is  very  rapid  and  coarse,  the  trees  are  liable  to  injury  dur- 
ing the  winter.  A  soil  that  will  produce  fifty  to  seventy-five  bush- 
els of  corn  to  the  acre  is  sufficiently  rich  for  Peaches. 

BUDDING. — The  seedlings  make  a  rapid  growth  and  will  be  in 
readiness  to  bud  in  August.  The  best  time  for  this  work  is  just 
before  the  growth  is  checked  by  early  frosts,  or  the  last  of  August  or 
first  of  September.  The  Peach  is  very  easily  budded  and  the 
growth  is  so  rapid  at  this  season  that  the  bands  must  be  cut  in  a 
week  or  two  from  the  time  of  budding  or  the  buds  will  be  injured 
by  the  cutting  in  of  the  bands,  or  rather  by  the  over-growth  of 
the  stock.  The  stocks  should  be  cut  off  the  following  spring  and 
only  the  inserted  bud  allowed  to  grow,  as  directed  for  the  apple. 
At  one  year  from  cutting  of  the  stock,  the  trees  are  in  their  best 
condition  for  transplanting,  and  at  this  age  are  better  than  if  older. 
They  are  divided  into  No.  1  and  No.  "2  grades,  classed  according 
to  size.  The  larger  trees  are  generally  those  that  were  budded 
upon  the  stronger  and  most  vigorous  stocks,  and  consequently  are 
most  valuable;  although  the  smaller  the  tree,  as  a  rule,  the  less 
loss  of  roots  there  will  be  in  digging  and  in  two  or  three  years 
from  planting  the  smaller  trees  will  often  equal  the'iarger  in  size. 
June-budded  trees  are  being  advertised  very  largely  by  many 
nurserymen.  Although  small  in  size,  having  grown  only  one  sea- 
son from  the  seed,  the  roots  are  much  less  injured  in  digging  and 
are  less  checked  by  removal  than  larger  trees.  In  cost  there  is 
little  or  no  advantage  either  way  between  the  June-budded  and 
the  No.  1  fall-budded  trees. 

THE  ORCHARD. — The  best  soil  for  the  Peach  is  a  warm,  sandy 
or  gravelly  loam,  situated  upon  more  or  less  of  an  elevation.  The 
exposure  may  be  either  north,  south,  east  or  west,  if  the  land  is 
high;  but  the  fruit  will  be  of  better  quality  if  the  exposure  is  to 
the  south,  southeast  or  southwest.  The  reason  why  the  Peach 
succeeds  better  upon  high  land  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  not  as  severe,  and  that  the  hio-her 
up  we  go  the  earlier  and  more  thoroughly  will  the  wood  be  ripen- 
id,  and  the  later  will  the  buds  start  in  the  spring. 


52 


PLANTING    THE    ORCHARD. 


There  is,  perhaps,  less  variation  in  size  and  form  of  tree  in  the 
different  kinds  of  Peaches  than  with  other  fruit  trees,  and  the 
distance  of  planting  is  more  uniform.  For  unpruned  trees  (those 
not  headed-in),  the  distance  should  be  eighteen  by  eighteen,  or 
twenty  by  twenty  feet.  If  the  tree  is  to  be  kept  headed-in,  which 
is  advisable,  ten  by  fifteen,  or  twelve  and  one-half  by  twelve  and 
one-half  feet  will  be  sufficient. 

PLANTING. — The  tree  should  be  prepared  for  planting  in  the 
same  way  as  the  apple,  except  that  it  may  be  advisable  to  cut  off 
all  the  laterals  to  allow  a  new  head  to  form  upon  a  clean  stem 
three  or  four  feet  high.  In  pruning  up  in  this  way  to  a  "stick," 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut  off  the  buds  at  the  base  of  each 
shoot,  as  the  proper  formation  of  the  head  depends  upon  having 
buds  well  distributed  along  the  main  cane.  Having  the  branches 
distributed  along  the  axis,  as  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  14,  Page  15,  is 
more  important  in  the  case  of  the  Peach  than  with  any  other  fruit 
tree,  as  the  wood  is  very  brittle  and  easily  broken  by  the  weight 
of  fruit. 

Transplanting,  training  and  pruning  are  the  same  as  described 
for  the  apple.  An  annual  pruning,  however,  should  be  given, 
consisting  of  cutting  back  the  last  season's  growth  one-half  in  the 
fall  or  winter  to  keep  the  tree  in  close,  compact  form,  as  is  shown 


Fig  43. 


Fig.  44. 


by  the  dotted  line  a,  ft,  Fig.  43.  This  is  rendered  necessary  by 
the  natural  tendency  of  the  tree  t->  grow  only  at  the  ends,  pro- 
ducing few  or  no  new  laterals  each  year  and  resulting  in  the 
condition  illustrated  by  Fig.  44, 'unless  corrected. 

CULTIVATION  AND  MANURING. — This  subject,  as  discussed  un- 
der head  of  The  Apple,  may  be  applied  to  the  Peach.  In  the  ap- 
plication of  manure  or  fertilizer  to  any  fruit  crop,  and  to  those 
especially  like  the  Peach  and  pear,  that  are  liable  to  injury  from 
cold  and  other  causes,  great  caution  must  be  used.  No  tree  can 
be  expected  to  produce  a  large  crop  of  fruit  without  a  liberal 
supply  of  food.  The  farmer  never  expects  to  get  a  large  or  pay- 
ing crop  of  corn  or  potatoes  from  land  unles's  he  applies  from 


WINTER     PROTECTION.  53 

fifteen  to  fifty  dollars'  worth  of  manure  or  fertilizer;  yet  many  a 
fruit  grower  will  expect  to  gather  crops,  many  times  the  value'  of 
either  of  the  above,  without  any  fertilizer  at  all,  The  fruit 
growers  who  apply  to  their  orchard  annually  twenty-five  dollars' 
worth  of  fertilizing  material,  I  believe  are  few  in  number.  In 
the  case  of  a  Peach  orchard  from  five  to  ten  years  old,  this 
amount,  or  even  fifty  dollars'  worth  would  not  be  too  large  a 
supply  to  put  on  to  an  acre  when  the  trees  are  to  bear  a  heavy 
crop.  As  with  the  apple  and  pear,  manures  or  fertilizers  should 
l>e  applied  late  in  the  fall  and  early  in  the  spring.  While  young, 
much  care  is  needed  not  to  force  too  large  a  growth  of  wood. 
For  fruit,  ground  bone  and  potash  is  the  best  fertilizer  that  can 
be  used. 

The  growth  of  the  Peach  tree  in  turf  land  promises  to  be  a 
method  by  which  much  of  the  climatic  injury  may  be  avoided. 

AGE  OF  BEARING. — Fruit  may  be  expected  in  paying  quantities 
at  from  three  to  five  years  from  planting  in  the  orchard.  The 
average  age  of  the  Peach  tree  in  this  section  is  hard  to  deter- 
mine, but  is  not  probably  over  ten  years  from  the  time  of  trans- 
planting, and  during  this  time  the  average  number  of  crops  may 
perhaps  be  three. 

The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  Peach 
in  this  latitude,  is  the  destruction  of  the  fruit-buds  in  cold 
weather,  It  occurs  in  seasons  when  the  growth  is  late,  or 
when  the  buds  are  started  into  growth  by  extremely  warm 
weather  in  December,  followed  by  severe  cold.  It  is  claimed 
by  many  fruit  culturists  that  the  fruit-buds  will  be  destroy- 
ed under  any  conditions  when  the  thermometer  indicates 
1.")°  below  zero.  Little,  however,  is  positively  known  as  to  this 
matter,  and  this  claim  may  be  generally  the  case,  but  I  have 
known  buds  to  be  uninjured  by  a  temperature  of  18°  below  zero, 
and  also  to  be  destroyed  by  a  temperature  not  lower  than  18° 
above  zero,  Fahrenheit. 

WINTER  PROTECTION. — This  uncertainty  of  the  Peach  crop 
leads  us  to  consider  if  some  means  may  not  be  employed  by 
which  the  crop  may  be  made  secure. 

One  method  which  I  successfully  adopted  a  few  years  since,  is  that 
of  laving  down  the  trees.  Two  young  trees  about  four  years  old 
were  taken  for  the  experiment.  The  roots  upon  one  side  were  loosen- 
ed and  cut  off  at  about  one  foot  from  the  tree.  The  soil  was 
then  loosened  upon  the  other  side,  and  the  trees  bent  down  and  held 
in  place  by  a  heavy  post.  Over  the  whole  was  thrown  a  few  bun- 
dles of  corn  stover.  The  roots  that  stood  out  of  the  ground 
when  the  tree  lay  prostrate  were  covered  with  a  foot  or  two  of 
soil.  In  this  state  the  trees  passed  the  winter  in  safety,  and  in 
the  spring  were  righted  up  and  the  soil  pressed  carefully  and 
firmly  about  the  roots.  The  result  was  a  fair  crop  of  Peaches 
when  all  other  buds  were  destroyed.  This  seems  a  practicable 
method,  and  if  the  roots  are  made  to  grow  more  largely  upon  ono 


•"A  THINNING     TIIK     KIM   II. 

side  of  the  tree  than  the  other  by  ;ui  occasional  root-pruning, 
there  can  be  little  difficulty  in  bending  over  even  large  trees,  aiid 
little  injury  need  result  to  the  tree. 

Standing  up  or  tying  ])ine  boughs  or  corn  stover  in  among  the 
brandies  has  been  also  suggested,  and  might  be  easily  and  cheap- 
ly accomplished  if  the  trees  are  trained  low.  The  high  price 
which  thoroughly  ripe  native  fruit  commands,  will  warrant  con- 
siderable  expense  in  the  application  of  any  system  that  will  in- 
sure a  crop  every  season. 

TmxxiXiJ  THK  FiiriT. — Of  all  the  large  fruits  cultivated  per- 
haps none  are  more  benefited  by  thinning  than  the  Peach.  The 
tree  is  very  likely,  when  it  does  produce  a  crop,  to  set  so  manv 
blossoms  that  the  tree  will  be  almost  certain  to  be  injured  in  its 
attempt  to  ripen  the  crop.  The  annual  pruning  or  shortening-in 
is  beneficial  by  removing  nearly  one-halt'  of  the  fruit  buds,  but 
it  will  be  found  that  one-half  of  those  remaining  may  generally 
bi  removed.  When  the  fruit  has  reached  from  one-fourth  to 
one-half  inch  in  diameter,  the  t  rees  should  be  examined  and  all 
imperfect  specimens  removed.  <)nl\  one  good  specimen  should 
be  left  on  the  short  spurs  of  from  one  to  five  inches  in  length; 
and  on  the  longer  branches,  only  one  to  each  five  indies  of  \\ood. 
The  quantity  of  fruit  will  not  he  diminished,  on  account  of  the  in- 
creased six.e  of  each  specimen,  while  the  number  of  seeds  mat  ured 
will  be  lessened.  Now  the  injury  to  the  tree  results  from  its  ef- 
fort in  ripening  a  large  number  of  seed-,  rather  than  in  the  pulp 
that  Surrounds  them,  hence  the  wisdom  of  thinning  the  fruit  on 
this  account  alone. 

CLASSIFICATION. — The  fruit  i--  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
tin  "white  fleshed  "  and  "yellow  tleshed  "  varieties.  These  mav 
be  again  divided  into  "  free-tone-  "  and  "  clingstone*," — those  in 
which  the  stone  does  not  adhere  to  the  pulp,  and  varieties  in 
which  the  flesh  clings  to  the  stone. 

The  YfkrietieS  of  both  cla--e>  that  are  most  desirable  inihis 
latitude,  are  given  in  the  order  of  ripening: 

^  I  l.i  <»\\     I  1.1  -in  I-     VAKII  i  DBS, 

Crawford's  Earl  if. — A  fine,  large  Peach,  of  good  quality,  ripen- 
ing early  in  September.  The  tree  is  very  vigorous  and  produc- 
tive, but  not  quite  as  hardy  as  some  of  the  white-fleshed  varie- 
ties. It  brings  the  highest  price  in  the  market,  and  is  a  free- 
stone variety. 

Crawford's  Late. —  Very  .-imilar  to  the  above,  but  perhap-  a 
little  larger  and  more  hard\  ;  ripens  the  last  of  September:  free- 
stone. 

WHITK.     KI.IMIII'    V. Mill    III-. 

Waterloo. — Medium  to  large,  of  fair  quality,  and  ripening 
about  the  first  of  August;  clingstone. 

Earl//  /i''Vfr.--.- -Medium  to  lar^e;  creamy  white  in  color,  and 
of  good  quality  ;  August. 


VARIETIES     OF     THE     PEACH.  55 

Mountain  Rose.  —  Medium  to  large;  round,  with  dark  red 
cheek;  tlcsh  white,  juicy  and  good;  freestone;  last  of  August  or 
early  September. 

Oldmixon.  —  Medium  to  large;  greenish  white,  with  red  cheek; 
flesh  white,  juicy  and  rich.  The  tree  is  hardy  and  productive, 
ripening  its  fruit  in  the  middle  of  September.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  hardy  and  productive  varieties. 

Stump.  —  Resembles  the  last,  but  ripens  much  later  and  is  per- 
haps equally  desirable.  The  tree  is  very  hardy  and  productive. 

ADDITIONAL    VARIETIES. 

Sclmmakei,  Reeves'  Favorite,  Excelsior, 

Pratt,  Wheatland,  Wager. 

(\.\-\  in  KI.\(,.  —  I'nlike  the  apple  and  pear,  the  Peach  readies  its 
highest,  excellence  only  when  ripened  upon  the  tree.  This  fact 
makes  it,  in  //x  1n*t  condition,  a  local  fruit  and  insures  paying 
prices  to  the  grower  in  Northern  sections  who  will  allow  his  fruit 
to  ripen  hilly  and  market  it  carefully.  It  is  true  that  large 
quantities  are  shipped  from  the  sections  where  the  fruit  reaches 
perhaps  greater  perfection  than  in  Northern  latitudes,  but  on  ac- 
count, of  the  necessity  of  its  being  picked  while  yet  hard,  it  is  sent 
to  market  before  it  reaches  its  best  condition  and  is.  in  ouality, 
much  inferior  to  that  grown  with  us,  where  our  fruit  is  allowed 
to  ripen  upon  the  tree. 

M  ARXETIXI;.  —  Iii  the  South  the  Peach  is  gathered,  often  before 
fully  grown,  and  packed  in  baskets  or  in  crates  of  about  one-half 
bushel.  Kor  the  local  market,  to  bring  the  highest  price,  it  must 
become  almost  mellow  before  being  picked,  and  should  be  packed 
in  small  baskets  or  boxes  a  single  layer  in  depth,  or  at  least,  not 
more  than  t  \\  o  layers  deep,  and  taken  to  market  in  sach  a  way  as 
not  to  roll  or  rattle  about.  In  this  way  choice  Peaches  will  often 
command  from  live  to  eight  dollars  per  bushel. 

INSI-.CTS.  —  The  only  insect  that  is  seriously  injurious  to  the 
Peach  is  known  as  the 


I'xtnr  (*1\,<i<'ri<i  <  .ritiosa)  —  Shown  by  the  sketches  —  Fig.  45, 
male;  Fig.  40,  female,  and  Kig.  17,  larva.  This  insect  lays  its 
eggs  at  various  times  from  ,1  une  to  September,  upon  the  trunk, 
generally  near  the  ground,  and  the  larvse  may  be  found  in  all 


Fig.  47. 


Fig.  45. 


56 


THE     PEACH     BORER. 


stages  of  development  during 
the  summer.  Their  pres- 
ence may  be  known  by  the 
exudation  of  gum  which  al- 
ways takes  place  from  a  fresh 
injury,  containing  the  chips 
or  droppings  of  the  larvae. 
The  eggs  hatch,  and  the  lar- 
vae penetrate  the  bark,  and 
feed  upon  the  inner  bark  and 
sap-wood,  often  eating  a  space 
the  size  of  a  silver  dollar,  as 


Fig.  46. 


is  shown  in  Fig.  48,  which  repre- 
sents the  trunk  of  a  tree  with  the  bark  cut  away,  showing  two 
borers,  their  burrows  and  the  piles  of  gum  and  chips  that  have 


exuded  from  the  injured  part.  A  single  borer  will  often  girdle  a, 
small  tree,  while  in  large  trees  are  often  found  from  five  to  ten 
borers.  They  generally  confine  their  work  to  the  trunk  near  the 
ground,  but  are  sometimes  found  in  the  forks  of  the  branches, 
where  their  injury  often  results  in  the  tree  splitting  down  when 
loaded  with  fruit. 

The  presence  of  the  Peach  borer  is  easily  known  by  the  chips 
in  the  exuding  gum,  and  it  is  easily  destroyed  with  a  strong, 
pointed  knife.  The  trees  should  be  examined  in  June  and 
August.  No  application  to  the  surface  is  known  to  be  wholly 
effectual,  although,  perhaps,  the  soap  and  tar  or  kerosene  mixture 
may  be  of  some  value.  In  addition  to  any  mixture  applied  to  the 
trunk,  careful  examination  should  be  made  with  the  knife,  as 
recommended  above. 

DISEASES. — The  only  disease  that  seriously  affects  the  Peach  is 
known  as  "  The  Yellows."  It  is  known  in  almost  all  sections 
of  the  country.  In  its  worst  form,  the  trees  have  a  yellowish, 
sickly  appearance,  with  small,  wiry  shoots  coming  out  upon  the 
large  branches,  as  is  shown  at  «,  a,  Fig.  44.  The  fruit  ripens 
prematurely,  is  small,  high  colored,  and  often  very  bitter. 

The  exact  nature  of  the  disease  is  not  fully  understood.     It  is 


REMEDY     FOR     THE     BORER.  57 

certain,  however,  that  there  is  present  at  certain  stages  bacterial 
or  algoid  ferments;  but  whether  they  are  the  cause  of  the  disease, 
or  simply  accompany  a  weak  state  of  the  tree,  or  the  natural 
decomposition  of  dead  matter,  is  only  conjecture.  I  am  led  to 
believe,  after  much  careful  study  of  the  subject,  that  the  latter  is 
nearer  the  truth  than  the  former,  and  that  the  trees  are  destroyed, 
in  part  or  in  whole,  by  the  action  of  frost  when  the  tissue  has 
become  weakened  and  imperfectly  developed,  from  some  or  all 
of  the  many  causes  of  weakness, — like  exhaustion  from  over- 
bearing, exhaustion  of  the  soil,  injury  from  borers,  or  a  very  late 
and  imperfect  growth  caused  by  the  use  of  too  much  nitrogenous 
manure,  or  by  late  cultivation.  The  injury  is  always  first  to  the 
top,  the  root  remaining  alive  often  for  a  year  or  more  after  the 
top  is  dead ;  showing  that  the  cause  is  the  result  of  influences  upon 
the  top  when  in  a  certain  condition.  Trees  that  .are  exhausted, 
injured  or  weakened  from  any  cause,  have  the  same  yellowish 
appearance  as  when  attacked  by  the  "  yellows." 

Remedy. — If  the  disease  is  not  too  far  advanced,  the  trees  may 
be  restored  to  their  natural  color  and  vigor  by  the  use  of  complete 
and  abundance  of  plant  food.  For  a  single  tree  the  following 
preparation,  put  on  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring,  is  a  good 
remedy : 

Five  pounds  of  pure  ground  bone. 

Three  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash. 

One  or  two  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  nitrate  of  potash. 

In  place  of  the  ground  bone  and  nitrate,  from  five  to  ten  large 
shovelfuls  of  well  decomposed  stable  manure  may  be  used  with 
nearly  'equal  results.  A  mulch  applied  to  the  roots  during  the 
summer  months  will  have  the  tendency  to  protect  the  roots  from 
the  effect  of  drouth  and  extreme  heat,  but  it  should  be  removed 
the  last  of  August  or  first  of  September,  that  a  late  growth  may 
not  be  caused  by  it.  After  freezing  weather  begins,  the  mulch 
may  be  applied  again  as  a  protection  from  injury  to  the  roots  from 
cold,  and  to  prevent  the  starting  of  the  buds  during  the  winter. 

In  the  growth  of  the  Peach,  the  cultivator  should  never  let  his 
trees  become  exhausted  and  weak  from  injury  of  insects.  Neither 
should  he  force  a  late  growth  by  the  use  of  nitrogenous  manures 
during  the  summer,  or  by  late  cultivation.  By  constant  attention 
to  their  wants,  keep  the  trees  in  a  healthy  condition.  Then  I 
believe  he  may  keep  them  in  a  productive  condition  for  twenty, 
twenty-five  or  even  fifty  years. 

ROTTING  OF  THE  FRUIT. — In  many  sections,  and  especially 
during  warm  ,  wet  seasons,  the  fruit  (particularly  of  the  early 
varieties)  is  very  liable  to  rot,  often  destroying  the  entire  crop. 
This  trouble  is  mostly  confined,  however,  to  trees  that  are  over- 
loaded with  fruit  or  that  are  in  a  poor  soil. 

Remedy. — Thinning  the  fruit  will  often  prevent  this  injury,  and 
the  application  of  an  abundance  of  plant  food  early  in  the  season, 
when  the  trees  are  in  blossom,  will  enable  them  to  overcome  the 
attacks  of  the  fungus  that  causes  the  rot. 


58  THE    PLUM. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE  PLUM  (PRUNUS  DOMESTICUS). 

ORIGIN PROPAGATION — NURSERY    TREATMENT ORCHARD    MAN- 
AGEMENT   PRUNING THINNING      THE     FRUIT VARIETIES  — 

GATHERING — MARKETING — DISEASES  AND   INSECT  PESTS. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  and  nutritions  fruits  and  of 
easy  cultivation.  In  the  value  of  its  products  it  stands  one  of 
the  lowest. 

ORIGIN. — The  Plum  is  a  native  of  Middle  and  Southern  Europe, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  prune,  and  is  largely  imported  to  this 
country  in  a  dried  state  and  sold  at  five  to  twenty-five  cents  per 
pound,  according  to  quality.  The  tree  is  hardy,  productive  and 
free  from  disease. 

PROPAGATION. — Like  the  pear,  the  Plum  is  largely  propagated 
by  budding  upon  imported  stock.  Strong  growing  varieties,  such 
as  Myrobolan  and  St.  Julien,  are  considered  most  desirable.  If 
seeds  from  strong  natural  seedlings  can  be  obtained  they  produce 
good  stocks.  The  seed  will  be  injured  if  exposed  to  the  amount 
of  drying  that  the  peach  pit  often  receives,  and  is  best  planted  in 
the  seed  bed  soon  after  gathering,  although  it  will  not  germinate 
until  the  following  spring. 

NURSERY  TREATMENT. — The  seedlings,  either  imported  or 
home  grown,  are  transplanted  to  a  deep,  rich,  moist  soil  in  the 
spring,  and  should  be  ready  to  bud  in  August.  The  treatment  in 
budding  and  training  of  the  Plum  is  similar  to  that  of  the  peach. 
At  two  years  from  the  bud,  the  Plum  trees  are  ready  to  transplant 
to  the  orchard. 

ORCHARD. — The  Plum  succeeds  upon  a  variety  of  soils,  but 
gives  the  best  results  upon  a  deep,  rich,  moist  loam.  It  is  a  tree 
that  will  bear  high  cultivation  without  danger  of  disease  or  injury 
from  cold  better,  perhaps,  than  any  of  the  large  fruits,  except  pos- 
sibly the  apple. 

The  varieties  differ  very  much  in  size  and  habit  of  the  growth 
of  the  tree,  and  the  distance  for  planting  should  vary  from  12^  by 
12£  feet,  to  20  by  20  feet,  according  to  the  kind.  The  Green 
Gage  and  other  small  kinds  may  be  planted  the  former,  while  the 


CULTURE    OF    THE    PLUM.  59 

Bradshaw,  Lombard,  etc.,  will  require  the  latter  distance.  Trees 
two  years  from  bud  are  most  commonly  planted,  although  a  strong 
one-year-old  tree  often  does  equally  well  and  costs  less. 

CULTIVATION. — The  Plum,  as  stated  before,  will  not  be  injured 
by  a  high  state  of  cultivation;  but,  as  with  all  other  fruits,  late 
working  of  the  soil  should  be  avoided.  It  is  largely  being  planted 
in  poultry  yards,  where  the  cultivation  and  fertilization  is  done  to 
a  great  extent  by  the  fowls,  while  the  trees  afford  the  necessary 
shade  during  the  summer. 

PRUNING. — Most  of  the  varieties  require  the  same  attention 
while  young  that  the  pear  tree  does,  as  they  also  have  a  tendency 
to  grow  only  three  or  four  strong  shoots,  which  become  much  ex- 
tended, and  when  loaded  with  fruit  are  liable  to  be  broken  off. 
This  may  be  remedied  and  the  tree  be  made  compact  and  close- 
headed  by  a  little  pinching  the  first  two  or  three  years.  The  form 
of  the  tree  is  naturally  round  and  should  be  trained  low  on  ac- 
count of  the  ease  of  thinning  and  gathering  the  fruit. 

AGE  OF  BEARING. — The  Plum  may  be  expected  to  produce 
paying  crops  of  fruit  at  from  four  to  six  years  from  planting  in 
the  orchard.  It  naturally  tends  to  injury  by  over-bearing,  but  if 
the  fruit  be  thinned,  the  bearing  condition  of  the  tree  will  con- 
tinue probably  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  years. 

THINNING  THE  FRUIT. — No  fruit  is  more  improved  by  this  pro- 
cess than  the  Plum,  and  with  no  fruit  will  the  work  give  better 
returns.  When  the  fruit  is  from  one-fourth  to  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  all  imperfect  and  insect-bitten  fruit  should 
be  picked.  Only  one  Plum  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  each 
spur,  'and  only  one  Plum  to  each  three  inches  of  the  shoots. 
Where  properly  thinned  the  trees  are  seldom  injured  by  over- 
bearing and  the  crop  is  often  doubled  in  value. 

CLASSIFICATION. — The  fruit  is  divided  into  three  classes — the 
green  or  yellow,  the  red,  and  the  purple  or  blue  Plums.  Many 
varieties,  however,  partake  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  two  or  more  classes. 

YELLOW    OR    GREEN    VARIETIES. 

Green  Gage. — This  variety  is  generally  taken  as  the  standard 
of  excellence  among  Plums.  The  fruit  is  small,  round,  greenish 
yellow,  and  of  the  most  melting,  delicious  quality.  The  tree  is 
small,  rather  slow  in  growth,  but  hardy  and  productive.  The 
fruit  is  in  season  in  September. 

Imperial  Gage. — Somewhat  resembles  the  last  in  fruit,  but  is 
larger,  round,  greenish  and  not  quite  equal  in  quality.  The  tree  is 
large,  vigorous  and  productive.  The  fruit  ripens  from  the  mid- 
dle to  the  last  of  August. 

McLaughlin. — Large,  round,  greenish  yellow,  sweet  and  fine  in 
flavor.  The  tree  is  a  good  grower  and  productive,  ripening  its 
fruit  the  last  of  August. 


60  VARIETIES    OF    PLUMS. 

Washington. — A  very  large,  round  plum;  green,  often  mottled 
or  dotted  with  red;  juicy,  sweet  and  good.  Tree  remarkable  for 
its  large,  glossy  foliage,  vigorous  growth  and  productiveness. 

Yellow  Magnum  Bonum  (or  Yellow  Egg). — A  very  large  yel- 
low Plum,  egg-shaped,  but  of  rather  coarse  quality.  The  tree  is 
vigorous  ancl  productive. 

RED    VARIETIES. 

Pond's  Seedling. — A  very  large,  oval  English  Plum,  red,  chang- 
ing to  violet;  rather  coarse  in  quality,  but  its  size  and  beauty 
makes  it  very  attractive  in  the  market.  The  tree  is  vigorous 
and  productive. 

Sharp's  Emperor  (Victoria). — A  beautiful,  large  Plum;  flesh 
rather  coarse,  but  sweet,  juicy  and  good.  The  tree  is  vigorous, 
but  rather  straggling  in  growth,  with  downy  shoots,  maturing  its 
fruit  about  the  middle-of  September. 

PURPLE    VARIETIES. 

Bradshaw. — A  very  large,  dark  purple  or  almost  black  Plum, 
of  fine  quality.  The  tree  is  very  vigorous  and  moderately  pro- 
ductive. It  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  varieties  on  account  of 
its  size  and  earliness,  being  marketable  in  August. 

Lombard. — Medium  to  large;  dark  red  or  purple  when  ripe, 
and  of  fair  quality.  The  tree  is  remarkably  productive  and  suc- 
ceeds in  a  great  variety  of  soils,  making  it  a  very  profitable 
variety. 

Duane's  Purple. — Very  large,  oval,  reddish  purple ;  flesh  juicy 
and  sweet;  tree  vigorous,  with  downy  shoots,  and  productive. 

ADDITIONAL    VARIETIES    OF    VALUE. 

Coe's  Golden,  German  Prune,  Gen.  Hand, 

Jefferson,  Smith's  Orleans,  Heine  Claude, 

Shropshire  Damson,  St.  Lawrence,  Yellow  Gage. 

GATHERING  THE  FRUIT.— Like  the  peach,  the  Plum  must  be 
ripened  upon  the  tree  to  roach  perfection,  and  as  the  skin  is 
thick  and  the  flesh  more  firm  than  the  latter,  it  need  not  be  gath- 
ered until  nearly  in  perfection  for  any  except  the  distant  market. 
When  ready,  the  fruit,  if  for  a  fancy  market,  should  be  picked 
from  the  tree  by  the  stem  and  laid  carefully  in  small  baskets,  in 
single  layers,  that  the  bloom  may  not  be  rubbed  off.  The  tree 
should  be  picked  over  several  times,  taking  only  such  as  are  ripe. 
For  canning  or  preserving  such  care  is  not  needed;  in  fact,  I  be- 
lieve the  fruit  is  considered  rather  better  for  this  purpose  if 
gathered  a  little  before  fully  ripe. 

MARKETING. — The  best  prices  are  obtained  when  the  fruit  is 
put  up  in  fancy  packages  (boxes  or  baskets),  of  one  or  two  layers 
each.  In  this  condition  very  choice  fruit  sells  for  from  ten  to 
twenty-five  cents  per  dozen  or  per  quart. 

Fruit  for  canning,  which  is  the  smaller  kinds  and  the  sortings 


THE   PLUM   CURCULIO. 


61 


of  the  larger  varieties,  is  put  up  in  baskets  or  crates  and  sells  for 
from  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  per  peck. 

INSECTS. — THE  PLUM  WEEVIL  or  CURCULIO  (Conotrachelus 
nenuphar).  This  insect  is  shown  at  Fig.  42,  which  is  reproduced 
here.  This  one  insect,  shown  at  Fig.  49,  has  done  more  to  des- 


Fig.  49.— Reproduced  from  Fig.  42,  Page  42. 

troy  the  Plum  crop  of  the  country  than  all  other  causes  together. 
When  the  fruit  is  the  size  of  peas,  the  beetle  a,  punctures  it,  as 
shown  at  b,  Fig.  49,  making  a  crescent-shaped  cut,  in  which  it 
lays  an  egg.  This  egg  hatches,  and  the  larva  or  worm  enters 
the  fruit  and  destroys  it,  as  shown  at  e,  Fig.  49.  The  fruit  soon 
falls  off  and  the  worm  escapes  to  the  ground,  where  it  makes  its 
cocoon  and  comes  out  the  following  spring. 

Remedy. — The  beetle  is  very  sensitive  to  a  sudden  jar,  looses 
its  hold  and  falls  to  the  ground,  remaining  with  its  legs  drawn  up 
as  if  dead  until  it  thinks  all  danger  past,  when  it  attempts  to 


Fig.  50. 

get  away.  Taking  advantage  of  this  habit,  the  trees  may  be 
jarred  early  in  the  morning  and  the  insects  caught  upon  expanded 
sheets  large  enough  to  extend  under  all  the  branches  and  des- 


62  THE    BLACK-KNOT. 

troyed.  The  sheets  may  be  expanded  upon  square  or  rounded 
frames  hinged  together  so  as  to  be  folded  up,  or  they  may  be 
mounted  upon  a  wheelbarrow  for  convenience  of  moving  about, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  Figure  No.  47.  The  jar  must  be 
very  sudden  to  bring  down  the  prey,  and  is  best  done  with  a 
wooden  mallet  covered  with  a  thick  cloth  pad  or  a  long,  heavy 
stick  padded  at  the  end.  This  work  must  be  kept  up  for  three 
weeks  from  the  time  the  fruit  is  the  size  of  a  pea;  it  is  effectual 
and  not  very  expensive. 

Planting  the  trees  in  poultry-yards  is  also  a  sure  way  to  secure 
the  fruit  from  the  attacks  of  the  curculio.  The  fowls  probably 
catch  the  beetles  as  they  come  out  of  the  ground,  and  also  the 
larvae  as  they  escape  from  the  fruit.  If  planted  in  large  quan- 
tities, probably  the  addition  of  swin.e  to  destroy  the  falling  fruit 
containing  the  larvse  would  be  advisable. 

The  Peach-Borer,  Fig.  48,  Page  56,  is  often  injurious  to  the 
roots  of  the  Plum,  and  the  same  remedy  should  be  applied  as 
for  the  peach-tree. 

The  Rose-Bug,  described  under  those  insects  injurious  to  the 
grape,  Page  80,  is  often  very  destructive  to  the  foliage,  especially 
to  young  trees.  The  application  of  pyrethrum  powder,  espe- 
cially the  kind  known  as  Buhach,  if  applied  in  the  evening,  will 
paralyze  them  so  that  the  bugs  will  fall  upon  the  curculio  frame, 
when  they  may  be  very  easily  destroyed. 

DISEASES. —  The  Black-  Wart  or  Black-Knot,  is  the  most  des- 
tructive disease  that  the  Plum  is  subject  to.  It  is  a  fungus, 
(Sphceria  morbosa,)  the  spores  or  seeds  of  which  germinate  upon 
the  tree,  generally  upon  the  branches,  in  the  spring.  The  roots 
of  this  fungus  plant,  known  as  the  mycelium,  penetrate  the  tissue 
of  the  Plum  tree;  the  tree  puts  forth  an  increased  growth  to 
overcome  or  overgrow  the  injury  of  the  fungus  itself,  thus  pro- 
ducing the  black  wart,  so  often  seen  upon  old  Plum  trees  and  the 
common  sour  cherry.  The  spores  of  this  fiingus  do  not  ripen, 
until  winter,  when  they  are  scattered,  and  are  ready  to  germin- 
ate again  in  the  spring. 

The  Remedy. — No  application  has  as  yet  been  discovered  that 
will  destroy  or  stop  the  growth  of  the  warts  when  they  appear. 
They  must  be  removed  with  the  knife  as  soon  as  they  begin  to 
develop  and  be  burned.  Cut  out  every  vestige  of  diseased  wood, 
whether  upon  the  trunk  or  branches.  If  a  large  cut  is  made 
upon  the  trunk  or  main  branches,  the  wound  should  be  covered 
with  paint  or  grafting  wax.  Healthy,  vigorous  trees  are  much 
less  liable  to  this  disease  than  weak  ones. 

ROTTING  OF  THE  FRUIT. — This  occurs,  as  in  the  peach,  in 
moist,  warm  weather,  and  when  the  trees  are  overloaded.  If  the 
directions  given  for  the  production  of  choice  fruit  and  the  pro- 
duction of  healthy,  vigorous  trees  be  followed,  the  grower  will 
not  be  much  troubled  by  his  fruit  rotting  upon  the  trees. 


THE    QUINCE    AND    CHERRY.  63 


CHAPTER  XV, 


THE  QUINCE  AND    CHEERY. 

ORIGIN,      PROPAGATION      AND      GENERAL      MANAGEMENT     OF      THE 
QUINCE    AND    CHERRY. 

The  Quince,  Cydonia  (Pyrus)  vulgaris,  is  a  native  of  Middle 
and  Southern  Europe,  where  it  was  known  and  esteemed  from 
the  earliest  records  of  those  countries.  It  is  not  a  fruit  that  can 
be  used  for  dessert  without  cooking,  but  its  aroma  and  peculiar- 
ly agreeable  flavor  makes  it  a  much  prized  fruit  for  preserves. 
On  account  of  the  limited  use  that  can  be  made  of  the  fruit,  it 
will  probably  not  be  found  profitable  if  grown  in  very  large 
quantities. 

PROPAGATION. — The  Quince  is  readily  propagated  by  layers, 
stools,  and  by  root-graft. 

Layers. — This  consists  in  budding-down  the  lower  branches  in 
the  spring,  and,  after  having  pared  off  the  bark  upon  the  under- 
side, they  are  covered  with  five  or  six  inches  of  rich,  moist  soil.  In 
the  autumn  roots  will  have  been  thrown  out  and  the  layers  may 
be  cut  ofr  and  planted  in  the  nursery  rows. 

Stool*. — This  is  a  modified  form  of  the  layer.  Stocks  that 
have  been  planted  one  or  two  years  are  cut  off  near  the  ground, 
and  from  these  numerous  shoots  will  spring  up.  These  are 
banked  up  with  rich  soil  the  following  spring,  and  in  the  autumn 
they  will  be  found  well-rooted  layers,  and  are  to  be  separated 
from  the  stock  and  planted  in  the  nursery.  After  about  two 
crops  of  layers  have  been  taken  from  the  stool,  they  are  allowed 
to  grow*  again  for  a  year  or  two  before  banking  up  again. 

Root-grafts.- — Perhaps  the  most  rapid  method  of  propagation 
is  by  grafting  upon  pieces  of  apple-roots.  This  is  done  during 
the  winter,  as  directed  for  the  apple,  upon  the  trimmings  of  the 
apple  seedlings  that  were  used  for  apple  root-grafts,  or  those  not 
large  enough  for  that  purpose  or  f ov  budding.  These  root-grafts  are 
planted  in  the  nursery,  in  rich,  moist  soil,  and  at  the  end  of  one 


64  FORMING    THE    QUINCE    TREE. 

season  are  taken  up,  when  it  will  be  found  that  the  union  of  the 
scion  with  the  root  has  been  but  slight  and  that  numerous  roots 
have  been  sent  out  from  the  scion.  The  apple-root  is  now  broken 
off  and  the  Quince  part,  which  is  now  a  well-rooted  cutting,  is 

})lanted  in  the  nursery  again  in  the  same  condition  as  the   rooted 
aver  before  described.     Propagation  by  cuttings  is  too  uncertain 
to  be  profitably  employed. 

NURSERY. — This  should  have  a  deep,  rich,  moist  soil,  and  the 
layers  or  rooted  cuttings  after  planting  should  be  trained  to  one 
shoot.  In  from  two  to  three  years  the  trees  will  be  of  the  proper 
size  to  plant  in  the  orchard.  The  advantage  of  training  the 
Quince  in  tree  form,  although  it  naturally  grows  in  the  form  of 
a  large  shrub,  is  that  the  trunk  is  sometimes  attacked  by  borers 
and  if  there  are  several  trunks  the  borers  are  certain  to  work 
upon  the  inside,  where  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  at  them, 
while  with  a  single  trunk  the  entire  surface  may  be  quickly  and 
effectually  examined  and  the  borers  destroyed  before  they  can 
do  much  harm.  Fig.  51  illustrates  the  form  the  tree  would  nat- 


Fig.  51. 

urally  take  if  unpruned,  while  Fig.  52  shows  one  pruned  to  the 
tree  form.  Good  fruit  may  be  grown  in  either  form,  the  size  and 
quality  depending  more  upon  the  amount  of  food  in  the  soil  than 
the  form  of  the  tree. 

THE  ORCHARD. — Tiie  best  soil  for  the  production  of  Quince 
fruit  is  a  deep,  rich,  moist  loam;  not  one  containing  stagnant 
water,  but  well  underdrained,  natural  or  otherwise. 

The  distance  for  planting  may  be  ten  by  ten,  or  twelve  by 
twelve  feet,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil;  in  a  very  rich 
soil  give  them  more  room  than  if  it  is  poor.  The  Quince  has  a 
large  number  of  fine  roots,  and  consequently  is  easily  trans- 
planted with  success. 

No  fruit  responds  more  quickly  to  good  cultivation  and  man- 
uring. A  late  growth,  however,  is  to  be  avoided  by  the  'applica- 
tion of  plant  food  in  autumn  and  early  spring.  All  cultivation 
should  cease  after  August  1.  For  the  production  of  fruit,  use 
potash  and  ground  bone. 

Little  or  no  pruning  is  required  after  the  tree  has  become  es- 
tablished, except  to  cut  off  the  suckers  as  they  appear  upon  the 
trunk  or  from  the  roots,  and  to  keep  the  head  in  good  form. 


VARIETIES    OF     QUINCES.  65 

In  good  soil,  the  Quince  begins  to  bear  paying  crops  of  fruit  in 
from  four  to  six  years  from  planting  in  the  orchard,  and  con- 
tinues to  bear,  with  good  treatment,  for  from  twenty  to  forty 
years. 

HARVESTING. — The  fruit  should  not  be  gathered  until  it  be- 
gins to  turn  yellow,  when  it  may  all  be  picked  at  once.  Like  the 
varieties  of  apples  with  a  yellow  skin,  it  must  be  handled  with 
care,  as  severe  bruises  will  make  marks  upon  the  surface. 

The  fruit  may  be  kept  for  one  or  two  months  in  any  cool  cel- 
lar or  shed,  but" to  keep  it  beyond  this  time  requires  cold  storage. 
It  does  not  generally  pay  to  keep  the  Quince  much  beyond  its 
natural  season  of  ripening,  as  it  meets  the  most  ready  market 
during  the  time  when  canning  and  preserving  are  mostly  done. 

VARIETIES. — There  are  but  few  varieties  in  cultivation,  and 
these  show  less  distinctive  characteristics  than  those  of  almost 
any  other  kind  of  fruit.  Among  the  best  are  : 

Orange. — This  is  an  old  standard  sort,  nearly  round  in  form,  and 
of  a  light  yellow  color;  tree  moderately  vigorous  and  productive; 
of  line  quality. 

Reefs. — This  is  claimed  to  be  larger  and  more  productive  than 
the  Orange,  but  it  is  no  better  in  quality  than  the  Orange. 

Champion. — A  new  variety  originated  in  Connecticut.  The 
fruit  is  large,  of  the  same  form  and  color  as  the  Orange,  said 
to  be  of  better  quality,  and  comes  earlier  into  bearing.  My  ex- 
perience with  this  variety  is  confined  to  young  trees  budded  upon 
the  Orange  stock.  In  this  condition  it  is  evidently  a  little  earlier 
in  bearing  than  the  Orange  or  Rea's,  but  this  eaiiiness  may  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  budded  trees.  Any  variety  may  be 
made  of  better  quality,  and  larger  and  finer  in  form,  by  good  cul- 
tivation than  if  neglected. 

The  Pear  Shaped  Quince. — This  is  an  old  variety  differing  from 
those  mentioned  above  in  form,  but  rapidly  going  out  of  cul- 
tivation. 

DISEASES.  The  Quince  is  comparatively  free  from  disease. 
It  is  sometimes  attacked  by  the  twig-blight.  This  is  similar  in 
appearance  to  the  fire-blight  in  the  pear,  but  seldom  destroys 
more  than  the  ends  of  the  shoots.  These  should  be  removed  and 
destroyed  by  burning,  as  soon  as  they  appear,  for  the  sake  of  the 
appearance  of  the  orchard,  if  not  to  prevent  it  from  spreading. 
The  trees  are  sometimes  destroyed  by  cold  where  they  make  a 
late,  coarse  growth;  the  remedy  or  preventive  has  been  previous- 
ly described. 

INSECTS. — The  only  insects  that  are  seriously  injurious  to  the 
Quince  are  the  borers  that  attack  the  apple.  They  are  to  be 
destroyed  as  described  under  that  subject. 


56  CULTURE  OF  THE  CHERRY. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 


THE     CHERRY. 


The  Cherry  (Prunus  cerasus),  originated  in  Asia  and  was  first 
introduced  into  Italy  from  the  town  of  Cerasus,  from  whence 
comes  its  specific  name.  It  is  a  very  delicious,  healthful  fruit, 
easily  grown,  but  on  account  of  its  perishable  nature  is  not  gen- 
erally considered  a  profitable  crop. 

PROPAGATION. — Varieties  are  propagated  by  budding  upon 
seedlings  in  the  nursery.  The  seedlings  are  imported  or  native, 
and  are  easily  grown.  The  seed,  which  is  generally  imported, 
should  be  from  strong,  vigorous  seedling  trees,  known  as  the 
Mazzard  stock,  and  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  gathered,  or 
preserved  in  sand  to  prevent  too  much  drying,  which  is  liable  to 
injure  the  vitality  of  the  seed.  The  best  soil  for  the  seed-bed  is 
a  light,  rather  rich,  warm  soil.  A  too  rich  soil,  however,  causes 
an  over-growth  that  is  undesirable. 

THE  NURSERY. — The  seedlings  planted  in  a  light  soil  in  the 
nursery,  are  budded  in  August.  This  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  difficult  seedlings  to  bud  on  account  of  the  very  watery 
nature  of  the  sap.  The  buds  take  best  when  the  stock  is  just 
maturing,  or  where  the  growth  is  rather  slow.  In  setting  the 
bud,  care  should  be  taken  to  cut  it  evenly  and  smooth,  and  to 
bind  very  firmly,  cutting  off  or  heading-in  the  top  of  the  seed- 
ling after  the  bud  has  been  tied. 

In  grafting  large  trees,  the  work  must  be  done  early  in  the 
spring, — from  April  1st  to  the  loth  in  this  latitude  of  Massa- 
chusetts— to  be  successful.  At  two  years  from  the  bud  the  trees 
are  ready  to  transplant  to  the  orchard. 

THE  ORCHARD. — The  best  soil  for  the  growth  of  this  fruit  is 
one  rather  light  and  moderately  rich.  It  is  often  found  growing 
vigorously  and  in  perfect  health  along  roadsides  in  turf  where  the 
growth  matures  early  and  where  the  roots  are  well  protected  from 
the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  In  very  rich  or  moist  soil  the 
tree  is  generally  injured  in  the  winter  by  the  action  of  the  frost 
which  bursts  the  bark  and  causes  large  cracks  in  the  trunk,  gen- 


ITS    VARIETIES.  67 

erally  upon  the  south  side.  This  injury  is  often  followed  by  a 
gradual  dying  of  the  tree,  similar  to  the  effect  of  the  "yellows" 
in  the  peach. 

The  distance  required  for  setting  the  trees  is  fifteen  by  fifteen 
feet  for  the  smaller  growing  kinds,  and  twenty  by  twenty  feet  for 
the  larger  sorts.  If  the  land  is  cultivated,  it  should  be  only 
during  the  early  part  of  the  season.  The  trees  should  be  planted 
around  the  borders  of  lots  or  about  stone  walls,  unless  planted 
in  large  quantities. 

Very  little  pruning  is  required,  the  tree  generally  taking  a 
perfect  form  without  much  care.  Proper  attention  should  be 
given,  however,  to  the  formation  of  the  head  at  the  proper  height 
while  the  trees  are  small. 

HARVESTING. — The  Cherry  must  be  allowed  to  ripen  upon  the 
tree  to  reach  perfection;  for  canning  purposes  and  preserves  it 
may  be  gathered  before  it  reaches  this  stage.  It  should  be  picked 
with  the  stems  on,  as  in  that  condition  it  keeps  much  longer.  The 
Cherry  is  generally  marketed  in  the  common  quart  strawberry 
boxes  packed  in  crates.  On  account  of  its  perishable  nature 
large  quantities  cannot  be  disposed  of  unless  they  are  very  nice. 
In  large  orchards,  the  best  way  to  dispose  of  the  crop  is  to  sell 
them  to  canning  factories  or  to  have  canning  or  evaporating  fa- 
cilities upon  the  grounds. 

CLASSIFICATION  AND  VARIETIES. — The  fruit  is  divided  into 
four  classes,  under  each  of  which  I  give  a  few  of  the  best  sorts. 

HEART  CHERRIES. — Trees  erect  and  pyramidal;  flesh  tender, 
juicy  and  sweet. 

I  Hack  Tartarian. — One  of  the  largest  black  Cherries;  of  the' 
best  quality  and  very  productive;  middle  to  last  of  June. 

Early  Purple. — A  very  early  Cherry  of  medium  size  and  fair 
quality;  ripens  early  in  June;  tree  moderately  vigorous  and 
productive. 

Gov.  Wood. — One  of  the  finest  yellow  or  light  red  Cherries; 
tree  vigorous  and  somewhat  irregular;  last  of  June. 

Downer's. — A  very  desirable  late  red  Cherry  of  medium  size 
and  must  be  fully  ripe  to  be  good;  tree  vigorous  and  productive; 
July. 

BIGARREAU  CHERRIES. — Similar  in  form  of  fruit  to  the  Heart 
Cherries,  but  the  flesh  is  very  fine  and  sweet;  tree  more 
spreading. 

Yellow  Spanish. — Large,  pale  yellow,  with  red  cheek;  flesh  fine, 
melting  and  sweet;  one  of  the  best  but  often  rots  on  the  tree; 
last  of  June. 

Cleveland. — Large,  red  and  yellow;  juicy,  rich  and  sweet;  mid- 
dle to  last  of  June;  tree  vigorous  and  productive. 

Rockport. — Large,  pale-amber  and  red;  flesh  tender,  sweet  and 
good;  tree  erect  and  vigorous. 


68  VARIETIES DISEASES    AND    INSECTS. 

Tradescants.—Vei'y  large,  black,  fine,  juicy  and  good;  tree  vig- 
orous and  very  productive ;  middle  of  July. 

DUKE  CHERRIES. — The  trees  are  round  in  form,  with  strong 
shoots,  and  the  fruit  generally  sweet. 

May  Duke. — An  old  variety  of  good  quality,  large,  dark  red, 
tender  and  rich;  tree  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive;  middle 
of  June. 

Royal  Duke. — Very  large,  of  good  quality,  and  ripens  a  little 
later  than  the  last;  vigorous  and  productive. 

Reine  Hortense. — A  French  variety  of  great  value ;  large,  juicy, 
sweet  and  good;  tree  remarkably  vigorous  and  erect. 

MORELLO  CHERRIES. — Head  round,  shoots  slender,  tree  of 
small  size  and  fruit  acid. 

Early  Richmond. — A  large,  early,  red  Cherry,  valued  especially 
for  cooking  and  preserves.  It  is  more  extensively  grown  per- 
haps than  all  other  kinds  together.  The  tree  is  vigorous  and  re- 
markably productive,  ripening  its  fruit  in  June. 

Belle  Magmfique. — A  very  large,  late  Cherry  of  better  quality 
than  the  last;  tree  vigorous  and  productive;  middle  to  last 
of  July. 

DISEASES  AND  INSECTS. — The  Cherry  is  comparatively  free 
from  destructive  diseases.  In  moist,  unfavorable  seasons,  a  .mil- 
dew sometimes  attacks  the  leaves,  doing  some  injury,  and  may 
be  avoided  by  good  cultivation. 

The  Cherry  Aphis  or  Louse  (Mf/.-tiis  cerasi),  is  the  small,  black 
aphis  that  appear  so  abundantly  upon  the  leaves  and  young  shoots 
•of  the  Cherry  tree  in  summer.  It  is  injurious  by  sucking  the 
juices  of  the  plant,  causing  the  leaves  to  curl  and  the  growth 
to  cease. 

The  tice  are  destroyed  with  a  strong  solution  of  soap  and  to- 
bacco water,  and  also  by  dusting  with  pyrethrum  just  at  night. 
With  young  trees,  the  branches  may  be  bent  down  and  dipped 
in  basins  of  the  above  solution. 

The  Rose  Bug,  described  on  Page  80,  in  the  chapter  on  the 
grape,  is  often  destructive  to  the  foliage  and  may  be  destroyed 
by  placing  the  curculio  screen  under  the  tree  and  applying  the 
pyrethrum  or  Buhach  powder,  when  they  will  all  fall  to  the 
ground  paralyzed. 

The  Plum  Curculio  often  punctures  the  fruit ^and  the  worms 
found  in  the  Cherries  are  its  larvae.  Upon  young  trees  the  jarring 
process  of  destruction  may  be  followed,  but  the  use  of  poultry  is 
much  more  satisfactory,  when  the  trees  become  large. 


ORIGIN  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE  GRAPE.  69 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


THE  GRAPE. 

(Vitis  Iaf»-'tiscf<,  the  Fox  Grape;     rifi*  c<,nlifoli«,the  Frost  Grape;   Vitis 
the  European  Grape.) 

It  is  difficult  to  say  at  this  writing  whether  this  fruit  should 
take  the  second  or  third  place  in  the  value  of  its  products. 
Its  cultivation  has  increased  at  an  amazing  rate  in  the  past  few 
years,  and,  owing  to  its  ease  of  culture,  its  long-keeping  quali- 
ties, and  its  value  as  a  healthful  and  nutritious  article  of  food,  it 
should  have  the  second  place  in  importance,  if  not  for  the  money 
value  of  its  products. 

ORIGIN  AND  HISTORY. — All  the  varieties  of  Grapes  now  culti- 
vated are  native  seedlings  and  have  originated  from  one  or  more 
of  the  above  species.  In  1820,  only  one  or  two  of  the  varieties 
now  cultivated  were  known  in  any  section  of  the  country  and  all 
that  are  especially  valuable  have  originated  within  the  last  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  years.  A  few  of  the  best  varieties  are  the  result  of 
hybridization,  but  most  of  them  are  chance  seedlings,  or  seed- 
lings of  such  hardy  and  reliable  sorts  as  the  Concord.  The  in- 
troduction of  foreign  blood,  as  it  is  called,  or  the  crossing  of  our 
common  fox  grape  with  varieties  of  the  European,  has  always 
resulted  in  a  weak  vine,  liable  to  mildew  and  to  injury  from  cold. 
Our  greatest  hope  of  securing  the  perfect  grape  is  from  seedlings 
in  which  the  improvement  in  quality  is  due  to  the  natural  influ- 
ences of  cultivation. 

PROPAGATION. — The  Grape  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  by 
layers  and  by  grafting. 

Cuttings. — Grape  cuttings  are   of  two  kinds,  the  long,  Fig.  53, 


Fig.  53. 

and  the  short,  Fig.  54.     The  long  cutting  is  made  of  two  or  more 
buds  of  the  last  season's  wood  of  medium  size,  and   from  six  to 


70  CUTTINGS    AND    LAYERS. 

eight  inches  in  length.     These  should  be  mad  >  in  the  fall  and  be 


Fig.  54. 

planted  before  the  ground  freezes;  or  be  tied  in  bundles  of 
twenty-five  and  preserved  by  burying  in  soil  where  there  will  be 
no  standing  water;  or  in  a  cool,  moist  cellar,  in  sand.  In  the 
spring  they  are  planted  in  rich,  moist  soil,  with  the  upper  bud 
just  at  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

In  planting,  the  main  condition  of  success  is  to  press  the  soil 
very  firmly  about  the  base  of  the  cuttings.  Cuttings  planted  in 
the  fall  should  be  covered  with  some  mulchy  material  to  prevent 
their  being  thrown  out  by  the  frost.  Most  of  the  common  kinds 
may  be  propagated  in  this  way.  The  Delaware,  and  a  few  others, 
however,  fail  to  root  from  long  cuttings  and  must  be  grown  by 
short  cuttings. 

The  short  cutting  consists  of  a  single  bud  and  from  two  to  three 
inches  of  wood,  cut  in  various  ways.  The  most  common  form 
is  shown  in  the  above  figure,  No.  £4.  These  cuttings  must  be 
rooted  in  sand  and  by  the  aid  of  artificial  heat.  They  are  made 
in  the  whiter  and  put  in  beds  or  boxes  of  sand  the  cuttings  being 
one  or  two  inches  apart,  and  the  boxes  or  bed  having  bottom  heat; 
that  is,  with  hot  water  or  steam  heat  or  fermenting  stable  manure, 
under  them.  The  conditions  under  which  they  are  most  success- 
fully rooted  are,  a  temperature  of  the  soil  or  sand  of  fifty  or 
sixty  degrees  and  that  of  the  atmosphere  forty  or  forty-five  de- 
grees. When  well  rooted,  the  cuttings  are  transplanted  to  boxes 
of  soil;  or,  if  the  danger  of  frost  is  past,  to  the  open  ground. 
Short  cuttings  make  better  plants  than  those  from  long  cuttings, 
if  they  are  properly  treated,  as  the  roots  all  come  out  from  nearly 
the  same  point,  very  much  like  those  of  seedlings. 

Layers. — Layering  the  Grapes  is  done  during  the  summer,  when 
it  is  called  a  summer  layer,  or  in  the  spring,  when  it  is  called 
a  spring  layer.  A  summer  layer  consists  of  a  shoot  of 


the  present  season's  growth,  bent  down  early   in  July  and  cov- 
ered with  six  inches  of  moist  soil.     Before  covering  it  is  best  to 


GRAFTING    THE    GRAPE.  71 

cut  off  a  thin  layer  of  bark  along  the  underside  of  the  cane, 
which  will  facilitate  the  emission  of  roots.  At  the  end  of  the 
summer  or  the  following  spring,  this  cane  is  cut  from  the  pareu 
vine  and  will  be  found  a  well-rooted,  strong  plant. 

By  the  spring  method,  Fig.  55,  as  many  plants  may  be  pro- 
duced from  one  layer  as  there  are  buds  upon  the  cane  laid  down. 
When  the  layer  is  to  be  made,  a  trench  is  dug  six  or  eight  inches 
.ieep,  in  which  is  laid  the  cane  of  the  last  season's  growth,  fixing 
it  firmly  in  the  bottom  by  the  use  of  forked  sticks  or  stones,  as 
shown  at  a,  Fig.  55.  This  remains  uncovered  until  the  buds 
have  sent  up  about  ten  inches'  growth,  when  the  soil  is  thrown  in. 

It  will  often  be  found  that  the  buds  near  the  parent  vine  and 
those  at  the  end  of  the  cane  will  grow  first  and  more  strongly 
than  those  in  the  center.  To  overcome  this,  the  cane  should  be 
bent  up  and  the  end  stuck  into  the  ground,  as  shown  at  b,  Fig.  55. 
The  bending  checks  the  flow  of  sap  at  the  end  of  the  cane.  The 
sap  rises  more  rapidly  to  the  highest  point  and  the  result  is  an 
increased  growth  of  the  center  buds. 

At  the  end  of  the  season,  roots  will  be  found  coming  from 
around  the  base  of  each  shoot,  and  by  cutting  the  canes  between 
the  nodes  we  have  as  many  good  vines  as  there  were  buds  upon 
the  covered  part  of  the  cane. 

By  no  other  method  can  as  many  vines  be  as  certainly  obtained 
as  by  the  spring  layer,  and  the  process  is  so  simple  that  he  who 
lias  one  vine  may  rapidly  increase  his  stock. 

GRAFTING. — With  no  other  fruit  is  grafting  so  uncertain  of 
success  as  with  the  grape  vine.  Various  methods  have  been  sug- 
gested, but  perhaps  the  one  described  below  is  the  most  certain. 
In  the  fall,  just  before  the  ground  freezes,  take  any  strong  stock 
that  you  wish  to  graft;  and,  removing  the  soil  from  the  roots, 
cut  the  main  cane  off  a  few  inches  below  the  surface.  Upon  this 
is  to  be  practiced  cleft-grafting.  The  stock  is  now  split  (if  very 
tough  and  gnarly  a  saw  may  be  used  to  split  it),  and  scions  of  one 
or  two  buds  are  cut  and  inserted,  as  illustrated  by  Figs.  20  to  24, 
Pages  23-24.  After  the  wedge  has  been  withdrawn,  the  soil  is 
pressed  closely  about  the  graft,  no  wax  being  used,  but  covering 
it  up  to  the  top  bud  of  the  scion.  Over  this  scion  is  placed  an 
an  inverted  small  flower-pot,  so  that  when  the  soil  is  removed  in 
the  spring  the  scion  may  not  be  disturbed. 

The  whole  work  is  now  covered  with  at  least  a  foot  of  soil, 
and  as  severe  weather  approaches,  over  this  is  thrown  enough 
litter  to  prevent  the  ground  around  the  stock  from  freezing.  In  this 
way,  if  the  grafting  is  successful,  a  very  strong  growth  will  be  made 
the  next  season,  and  the  second  year  a  fine  crop  of  fruit  may  be 
expected.  I  have  known  a  single  bud  placed  in  a  stock  less  than 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  to  make  a  growth  of  two 
canes  over  eight  feet  long  the  first  season.  This  affords  a  good 
way  of  testing  new  varieties,  and  is  one  of  the  most  certain 
methods  of  grafting  the  vine  that  I  have  tried,  but  I  would  not 
count  upon  more  than  three  successes  in  five  trials. 


72  SETTING    THE    GRAPE    VINE. 

THE  VINEYARD. — The  best  vines  for  planting  in  the  vineyard 
are  No.  1  one-year-olds  from  cuttings  or  layers.  These  should 
not  have  made  less  than  eighteen  inches  of  wood,  and  have  a 
large  mass  of  fibrous  roots. 

The  best  soil  is  a,  light  sandy  or  gravelly  loam  that  does  not 
suffer  from  drouth;  and  if  on  an  elevation  sloping  to  the  south, 
the  fruit  will  be  of  much  finer  quality  and  will  be  less  liable  to 
injury  from  late-  frosts  in  th'e  spring  or  early  frosts  in  the  fall. 
The  more  small  stones  in  the  soil  the  warmer  it  will  be,  and  the 
richer  and  earlier  the  fruit. 

Before  planting,  the  land  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  and 
marked  out  with  a  marker  or  with  a  plow.  If  very  accurate 
spacing  is  desired,  the  marking  or  staking  should  be  done  with 
the  line  or  wire.  The  soil  should  be  made  moderately  rich  by 
the  use  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  or  bone  and  potash. 

The  distance  of  planting  is  from  s!x  by  ten  feet,  to  ten  by  ten 
feet  according  to  the  vigor  of  the  variety  and  the  mode  of  train- 
ing. For  all  but  the  very  small  growing  kinds,  like  the  Dela- 
ware, Lady,  etc.,  I  think  the  latter  distance  the  best.  The  nearer 
they  are  planted,  the  less  space  the  roots  will  have  in  which  to 
develop  and  the  more  fertilizing  material  will  need  to  be  applied, 
and  vice  versa. 

The  most  rapid  way  of  planting  is  to  furrow  out  the  land  both 
ways,  and  the  vines  are  planted  at  the  intersection. 

Before  planting,  the  top  of  the  vine  should  be  cut  oft'  to  two  or 
three  buds,  and  if  the  roots  are  very  long,  it  is  well  to  cut  them 
back  to  ten  inches  in  length.  Having  prepared  the  vine,  the  hole 
is  prepared  with  a  spade  by  taking  out  three  or  four  spadefuls 
of  soil  at  the  intersection  of  the  furrow  previously  made,  in  such 
a  way  that  the  soil  in  the  center  will  be  a  little  higher  than  that 
on  the  border  of  the  hole,  so  that  the  ends  of  the  roots  may  lie 
planted  about  eight  inches  deep  while  the  crown  of  the  root  shall 
be  covered  only  four  or  five  inches.  Spread  out  the  roots  in  all 
directions  and  fill  in  with  good  surface  soil,  pressing  it  very  firm- 
ly in  place.  If  the  soil  be  very  poor,  a  handful  or  two  of  fine 
ground  bone  may  be  worked  in  with  the  soil  about  the  roots  with 
great  benefit. 

CULTIVATION. — The  land  of  the  vineyard  may  be  planted  for 
the  first  two  years  with  some  low-hoed  crop  like  potatoes  or 
beans;  provided  a  little  more  plant-food  is  returned  to  the  soil 
in  the  fall  or  spring  than  is  taken  up  by  the  crop  removed.  Per- 
haps there  is  nothing  better  to  grow  in  the  newly-set  vineyard 
than  the  bean  crop,  as  cultivation  would  cease  early  in  July; 
while  the  land  would  be  disturbed  by  digging  the  crop  of  potatoes 
so  much  and  so  late  as  to  cause  a  late  growth  of  the  vines.  Xo 
crops  should  ever  be  planted  in  the  vineyard  that  will  shade 
vines. 

PRUNING  AND  TRAINING. —  The  First  Year. — During  the  first 
summer,  the  vines  will  require  no  care  except  to  see  that  they 
are  not  injured  in  cultivating  the  other  crops.  They  will  grow 


PRUNING    AND    TRAILING. 


73 


better  and  mature  their  wood  more  thoroughly,  lying  upon  the 
ground,  than  it'  supported  by  stakes. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  year's  growth,  or  before  the  sap  begins 
to  move  in  the  spring  of  the  second  year,  the  top  of  the  vine 
should  be  cut  back  to  one  strong  cane  of  three  buds.  Tt  is  per- 
haps best  to  do  this  in  the  fall  of  the  first  year,  and  then  cover 
up  the  end  of  the  cane  with  one  or  two  shovelfuls  of  soil  to  protect 
it  from  the  winter. 

The  Second  Year. — Only  one  cane  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
the  second  year,  and  this  should  be  tied  up  to  a  stake.  Any  kind 
of  a  stake  that  is  four  or  five  feet  high  will  do  for  this  purpose. 
All  laterals  that  may  start  from  the  buds  at  the  base  of  the  cane 
should  be  pinched  off  as  soon  as  they  are  four  or  five  inches  long, 
and  all  the  growth  forced  into  the  main  cane.  When  the  cane 
has  reached  the  top  of  the  stake,  the  end  should  be  pinched. 
This  will  cause  it  to  become  thick  and  stocky,  and  the  wood  to 
mature  more  fully.  At  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  cane  may 
be  laid  down  again  to  protect  it  from  injury. 

SUPPORTS  AND  TRELLISES. — The  vine  has  now  reached  a  stage 
where  it  needs  some  permanent  support.  Two  methods  are  com- 
monly employed  by  vineyardists  for  supporting  their  vines, 
stakes  and  trellises.  The  advantages  of  the  first  are  that  the 
vines  can  be  cultivated  both  ways  with  the  horse  during  the  spring 
and  early  summer,  and  that  material  often  obtained  very  cheaply 
from  one's  own  land  may  be  used  for  stakes,  while  the  trellis  is 
more  durable  and  the  vines  require  less  support  to  keep  them  up 
from  the  ground. 

STAKES. — In  this  method  various   kinds    of  stakes   are    used. 


Fig.  56.  Fig.  57. 

Some  vineyardists  use  only  one  stake  (Fig.  56),  and  others  use  two 
stakes,  one  about  eighteen  inches  each  side  of  the  vine,  as  shown 


74 


TRELLIS    FOR    THE    GRAPE. 


in  Fig.  57.  The  chestnut,  larch  and  cedar  posts  are  of  about 
equal  durability.  Posts  of  sawn  two  by  three-inch  stuff  are  often 
used,  and  have  the  advantage,  that  if  they  are  renewed  just 
before  they  break  off,  the  new  stakes  may  be  easily  inserted 
where  the  old  ones  were  removed  without  making  a  new  hole, 
if  the  work  is  done  in  the  spring. 

TRELLISES. — In  this  method,  many  kinds  of  trellises  have 
been  used,  but  the  best  and  most  commonly  used  is  made  of 
posts,  nine  feet  long,  set  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  apart,  and 
three  feet  below  the  surface.  The  end  posts  should  be  large  and 
well  braced,  while  smaller  ones  may  be  used  in  the  middle.  Upon 
these  posts  (Fig.  58)  are  placed  three  or  four  No.  14  galvanized 
wires,  the  first  one  being  not  less  than  two  feet  from  the  groun'1. 
These  are  fixed  in  place  with  staples,  and  the  wires  are  stretched 
loy  means  of  levers  or  by  the  common  barbed-wire  stretcher. 
No.  16  wire  is  sometimes  used,  but  is  rather  small  to  support  a 
great  weight  of  vine  and  fruit;  and  the  larger  the  wire  the  more 
distant  can  the  posts  be  set. 

TRAINING. — Having  the  stakes  set  or  the  trellis  made  the  third 
year,  the  vine  must  be  established  upon  the  supports.  If  the 
stakes  are  used,  the  system  of  training  consists  in  simply  winding 
one  cane  arounde  ach  stake,  and  fixing  it  in  two  or  three  places  so 
that  it  shall  not  slip  down  (Figs.  56  and  57).  The  string  of  any 
coarse,  strong  material,  should  be  tied  with  a  loop  around  the 
vine  so  as  to  allow  for  ihe  increase  in  size  by  growth. 

The  third  season  the  fruit  is  borne  upon  the  laterals  from  the 
main  cane,  but  the  fourth  year  it  is  borne  upon  spurs  made  by 
cutting  these  laterals  back  to  three  buds  in  the  fall  or  winter, 
as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  58.  The  pruning  each  year  after  the  vine 


Fig.  58. 

has  become  established  consists  in  simply   cutting   back   the   last 
season's  canes  to  spurs.     Only  a  limited  number  of  spurs  should 


SYSTEMS    OF   TRAINING.  75 

be  allowed  to  remain,  according  to  the  strength  of  the   vine,  cut- 


Fig.  59. 

ting  away  all  weak  shoots.  From  each  of  the  spurs  should  be 
allowed  to  grow  one  or  two  canes,  and  upon  each  of  these  there 
should  not  be  allowed  to  mature  more  than  two  bunches  of 
Grapes,  and  if  the  vine  is  not  strong,  only  one  bunch. 


76 


THE    HORIZONTAL    ARM    SYSTEM. 


Upon  the  trellis  the  vine 
may  be  established  in  a 
natural  fan  system  (Fig-. 
08),  in  the  vertical  arm 
system  (Fig.  59),  or  in  the 
horizontal  arm  system 
(Fig.  60). 

All  the  various  systems 
by  which  the  vine  is  trained 
may  be   brought   down  to 
two — the      spur      system, 
and    the    renewal  system. 
By  the  spur  system  all  the 
canes   at    the  end   of    the 
season   are     cut    back  to 
three    buds,  as    shown    at 
the  dotted  lines  'a,  Fig.  58. 
.  By  the    renewal    system, 
S  canes  are  grown  this  sea- 
.jrf  son  for  fruiting  the  next ; 
*  while    the  cane    that    has 
borne  fruit,  is  cut  back  to 
a  spur  from  which  is  grown 
the  cane    to  produce    the 
fruit  the  next  season. 

The  two  systems  are 
practiced  with  various 
modifications,  but  the 
whole  secret  of  succ  ss 
lies  in  the  amount  of 
strong,  thoroughly  ripened 
wood  that  can  be  produced 
and  of  allowing  only  a 
small  number  of  large, 
perfect  bunches  to  remain 
upon  the  vine. 

The  thinning  of  the 
fruit  should  be  done  as 
soon  as  the  grapes  are  the  size  of  peas.  All  the  small  bunches 
should  be  removed  and  only  one  or  two  be  left  upon  each  new 
shoot,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  vine.  Under  the  best  of 
cultivation  a  vine  four  or  five  years  old  may  produce  from  five 
to  ten  pounds  of  choice  fruit;  and  as  it  increases  in  size  and  vigor, 
it  may  produce  as  high  as  twenty  pounds.  The  average  for  vins- 
yards,  in  full  bearing,  will  not  be  over  ten  pounds  of  choice  fruit 
per  vine. 

PRUNING. — The  beginner  in  Grape-growing  is  often  much 
troubled  about  the  best  time  to  prune  the  vine  and  the  best 
methods  of  pruning.  With  vines  that  are  well  established  the 
work  is  very  simple  and  consists,  in  the  spur  system,  in  cutting- 


TIME    AND    MANNER    OF    PRUNING. 


77 


back  all  the  .strong-  shoots  to  three  buds  and  removing  entirely 
all  weak  canes  not  needed  to  carry  out  the  system.  In  the  re- 
newal system,  those  shoots  that  are  to  remain  for  fruiting  next 
season  are  shortened  to  a  proper  length,  and  the  shoots  from 
wlii eh  the  new  canes  are  to  be  grown  are  cut  back  to  spurs.  All 
wood,  not  needed  to  carry  out  the  system,  is  cut  away. 

The  best  time  for  pruning  is  in  the  fall  or  winter.  Pruning 
after  the  sap  begins  to  move  in  the  spring,  or  after  the  middle  of 
March,  cannot  be  recommended,  although  there  is  no  evidence  to 
prove  that  the  vines  are  injured  by  the  "  bleeding "  that  takes 
place  when  pruned  so  late. 

The  best  implement  for  pruning  is  the  common  hand  .pruning 
,  O, 


61. 


shears,  of  which  there  are  many  good  patterns.     The  dotted  lines 
at    a,   Figs.   01  and  62,  show  where  the   cuts  are  to   be  made. 


PRUNING-  OLD  VINES. — In  many  gardens  there  are  to  be  found 
old  vines  that  have  not  been  pruned  for  years,  and  the  fruit  is 
small  and  almost  worthless.  The  owner  still  neglects  it  because 
he  does  not  know  how  to  take  hold  of  the  vine  and  put  it  into 
shape.  Such  a  vine,  with  a  lictle  care,  may  be  made  productive, 
and  can  easily  be  brought  under  some  system  of  pruning.  The 
first  thing  to  do  in  the  fall,  is  to  cut,  and  cut,  and  cut  away 
until  the  vine  consists  of  the  necessary  arms,  branches  or  laterals 
to  allow  a  single  one  to  each  wire,  stake,  slat  or  other  support 
used.  From  these  branches  during  the  following  summer  will 
come  out  numerous  sprouts.  Such  of  these  as  are  needed  to  re- 


78  SUMMER    PRUNING HARVESTING. 

place  the  old  canes  or  to  furnish  fruit  spurs  are  preserved,  and 
the  others  rubbed  off  before  they  have  made  much  growth.  At 
the  end  of  the  first  season,  or  at  least  of  the  second,  the  vine  will 
consist  of  new  wood,  and  any  of  the  various  systems  may  be  car- 
ried out  with  it.  In  the  case  of  such  old  vines,  unless  canes 
of  one  year's  growth  can  be  found  for  arms,  no  fruit  will  be  pro- 
duced the  year  after  the  first  pruning.  No  fear  need  be  had  that 
the  vine  will  be  injured,  as  winter  pruning  generally  tends  to  in- 
crease growth  rather  than  diminish  it.  This  is  just  •  the  oppo- 
site of  summer  pruning. 

SUMMER  PRUNING. — In  order  to  force  the  growth  into  the  canes 
that  are  to  produce  the  fruit  and  the  canes  for  renewal,  summer 
pruning  is  resorted  to.  This  consists  in  pinching  out  the  end  bud 
of  the  fruiting  cane  when  it  has  reached  two  or  three  feet  beyond 
the  last  bunch  of  fruit;  and  pinching  back  the  renewal  cane 
when  it  has  reached  the  length  required  for  the  kind  of  support 
used. 

A  large  amount  of  foliage  should  never  be  removed  from  tree, 
vine  or  plant,  unless  to  check  its  growth,  for  it  is  certain  to  re- 
sult in  injury.  The  maturity  and  perfection  of  the  fruit,  and  in 
fact  that  of  the  whole  plant,  depend  upon  the  amount  and  vigor 
of  the  foliage ;  and  the  common  idea  that  removing  the  foliage 
to  let  in  the  sun  hastens  the  ripening  process,  is  wholly  wrong. 
The  best  fruit  is  always  found  under  the  foliage  shielded  from 
the  hot,  scorching  sun. 

GATHERING  THE  FRUIT. — Unlike  some  other  fruits,  the  Grape 
does  not  improve  in  quality  after  removal  from  the  vine,  and 
consequently  must  be  allowed  to  remain  upon  the  vine  until  ripe. 
A  very  certain  indication  of  the  maturity  of  the  Grape  is  when 
about  one-half  inch  of  the  stem  where  it  joins  the  cane  has  turned 
brown  like  the  bark  of  the  cane.  Light  frosts  will  injure  par- 
tially ripened  fruit,  but  when  fully  mature,  it  takes  a  freeze  to 
seriously  injure  it. 

To  retain  the  beauty  of  the  fruit,  that  is,  not  to  injure  the 
bloom,  the  bunches  must  be  removed  by  taking  hold  of  the  stems 
and  breaking  them  off  or  by  cutting  with  a  knife  or  scissors. 
Where  large  quantities  are  to  be  gathered,  large  shallow  trays 
are  used  upon  which  a  single  layer  of  bunches  is  placed;  then  the 
trays  are  carried  upon  a  rack  to  the  packing  or  'storing  room. 
Small  quantities  may  be  picked  in  the  field,  trimmed  and  packed 
in  baskets  or  trays  ready  for  market. 

PACKING  AND  SHIPPING. — For  a  distant  market,  only  thick- 
skinned  kinds  can  be  successfully  shipped.  These  are  sorted, 
all  the  imperfect  berries  cut  out;  the  bunches  are  then  packed 
closely  in  small  baskets  holding  from  five  to  ten  pounds.  For 
local  markets,  they  are  taken  to  the  dealer  in  trays  or  shallow 
baskets,  in  a  single  layer,  so  that  the  bloom  will  not  be  injured. 

PRESERVING. — The  Grape  is  a  fruit  that  may  be  easily  kept 
much  beyond  its  season.  The  most  perfect  conditions  for  pres- 


VARIETIES    OF   GRAPES.  79 

ervation  are  a  moist,  cool  atmosphere,  and  the  temperature  about 
35°.  This  is  only  obtained  by  the  use  of  ice.  In  this  section^ 
varieties  like  the  Concord,  that  ripen  from  the  first  to  the  middle 
of  September,  may  be  kept  until  the  last  of  November  under  such 
conditions.  Thick-skinned  kinds  may  be  preserved  later  in  a 
cool,  dry  place,  by  packing  in  single  layers  of  cotton  wool  in  a 
close  box,  but  the  stems  generally  shrivel  and  the  berries  are 
likely  to  drop. 

CLASSIFICATION. — Varieties  are  classified  into  black,  red  and 
white. 

BLACK    VARIETIES. 

Moore's  Early . — For  its  extreme  earliness,  for  the  northern  fruit 
belt,  this  must  be  placed  first.  The  vine  is  a  pure  native,  hard}*, 
moderately  vigorous  and  productive;  berry  very  large,  round, 
and  nearly  black;  bunch  medium  and  large,  with  much  less  bloom 
than  the, Concord;  quality  fair,  equaling  the  Concord  and  ripen- 
ing ten  days  earlier. 

Concord. — For  vigor,  hardiness  and  productiveness,  this  is  still 
unequaled.  In  quality  it  is  only  fair  and  with  a  thin  skin.  It  is 
still  "the  Grape  for  the  millions,"  and  is  too  well  known  to  need 
further  description. 

Warden. — A  seedling  of  the  Concord,  and  in  some  sections  said 
to  be  superior  to  that  variety.  It  resembles  its  parent  in  all 
particulars,  but  may  be  a  little  earlier  and  of  better  quality. 

Wilder  (Rogers'  No.  4). — A  hybrid  Grape  of  large  size  and 
fine  quality;  bunch  large  and  showy.  Wrth  careful  culture  it 
may  be  found  profitable. 

RED    GRAPES. 

Delaware.— This  little  Grape  is  everywhere  known.  It  is  hardy, 
productive,  but  slow  in  growth,  and  the  thin  leaves  are  liable  to 
injury  from  mildew.  The  fruit  is  of  the  best  quality.  The  Del- 
aware requires  careful  and  rich  culture. 

Brighton. — Medium  to  large,  of  good  quality,  and  ripening  with 
the  Concord.  Color  rather  dark  red,  which  is  an  objectionable 
color  for  a  market  Grape;  of  fair  quality  and  a  good  keeper. 

Vergennes. — A  red  Grape  of  more  recent  introduction,  but  es- 
pecially valuable  for  its  late  keeping  qualities. 

WHITE   GRAPES. 

Lady. — A  small  Grape  of  good  quality;  vine  rather  slow  in 
growth,  but  hardy  and  productive. 

'  Martha. — An  old  variety,  with  vine  resembling  the  Concord; 
fruit  medium  in  size  and  of  fair  quality. 

ADDITIONAL    VARIETIES    OF    MERIT. 

Rockwood,  Jefferson,  Niagara,         Francis  B.  Hayes. 


80 


GIRDLING    THE    GRAPE. 


GIRDLING  THE  GRAPE. — In  our  northern  sections,  frosts  come 
so  early  that  even  the  Concord  often  fails  to  ripen,  and  there  is 
need  of  some  process  by  which  even  later  varieties  of  high 
quality  may  be  ripened  with  certainty.  Such  a  process  is  found 
in  what  is  known  as  gird- 
ling or  ringing.  It  con- 
sists in  taking  a  ring  of 
bark  out  of  the  growing 
cane,  just  below  the  fruit 
as  shown  in  Fig.  63.  The 
girdling  should  be  done 
about  four  weeks  in  ad- 
vance of  the  usual  time  of 
ripening.  The  effect  of 
this  is  to  cause  a  rapid  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  the 
fruit  and  to  hasten  its  ma- 
turity from  ten  days  to 
two  weeks.  In  a  series  of 
experiments,  made  at  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultur- 
al College,  it  was  found 
that  the  quality  of  the 
fruit  was  not  injured  by 
the  .girdling,  nor  could 
any  perceptible  injury  be 
discovered  to  the  vine. 
The  ring  of  bark  mfty  be 
removed  rapidly  with  the 
knife,  Fig.  64.  The  use  of 
strings  or  wires  twisted  tightly  around  the  canes  will  probably 
answer  the  same  purpose  as  the  removal  of  the  ring  of  bark. 
Only  those  canes  that  are  to  be  cut  away  entirely  at  the  end  of 
the  season,  should  be  girdled.  The  cane  is  girdled  at  A,  Fig.  63, 


Fur.  64. 

and  after  fruiting  is  cut  back  to  E,  leaving  two  canes,  C  and  D,  for 
the  continuation  of  the  treatment.  The  cane  B  is  to  be  cut  back 
to  one  or  two  buds  at  the  fall  or  winter  pruning. 

INSECTS. — The  Grape  is  a  fruit  generally  one  of  the  least  sub- 
ject to  injury  from  insects.  Some  seasons  the  Rose  Bug,  which 
is  too  common  to  need  description,  plays  havoc  with  the  blossoms* 
just  as  the  fruit  is  setting,  and  in  a  few  sections  has  done  some 
injury  to  the  foliage.  It  is  an  insect  that  notning  seems  to  des- 
troy, but  it  may  be  paralyzed  by  the  use  of  the  pyrethrum 
powder,  applied  just  at  night,  when  the  bugs  may  be  caught  upon 


THE    PHYLLOXERA. 


81 


the  curculio  screen.     Hand-picking,  which  has    been  resorted  to 
by  some  growers,  is  too  expensive  except  upon  very  choice  vari- 


Fig.  BS. 

eties.  It  L  claimed  by  the  Buhacli  company  that  their  prepar- 
ation of  pyrethrum  will  kill  this  pest.  Should  this  prove  to  be 
the  case,  the  screen  will  not  be  needed. 

Phylloxera  or  Grape  Vine  Louse  {Phylloxera  vastatrix). — This  is 
the  insect  that  is  so  destructive  to  vines  of  European  vineyards, 
and  has  destroyed  thousands  and  thousands  of  acres  of  vines 
there.  It  is  a  native  of  this  country  and  by  some  means  was 
transported  across  the  Atlantic  and  has  propagated  and  developed 
with  great  rapidity  upon  the  more  tender  European  Grapes.  It 
is  generally  found  in  two  forms,  the  leaf  and  root  form.  The 
former  is  very  small,  not  over  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  in 
length,  of  a  light  yellow  color,  and  sucks  the  juices  of  the  leaves 
and  tender  branches,  causing  small  warts  or  galls  upon  them. 
The  leaf  forms  of  the  Phylloxera  is  shown  at  Fig.  65:  «.  front 
view  of  the  young  louse;  b,  back  view;  of  the  louse;  c,  the  egg; 
d,  a  section  of  one  of  the  galls ;  e,  a  swollen  tendril ;  f,  g,  h, 
mature  egg-bearing  gall-louse,  lateral,  dorsal  (or  back),  and  ventral 
(or  belly)  views;  i,  the  antenna;  /,  the  two-jointed  tarsns. 

The  root  form  (Fig.  66)  is  of  about  the  same  size  and  causes 
similar  swellings  upon  the  fibrous  roots.  Fig.  66,  illustrates  the 
root  phylloxera:  a,  the  roots  of  a  Clinton  vine,  showing  the 
swellings;  I,,  young  louse  in  the  hibernating  stage;  c,  d,  antennse 

6 


82 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    PHYLLOXERA. 


Fig.  66. 


and  leg  of    the  same;    <?,/,  g,  matured  lice.      In  Fig  07,  a,  is  a 
healthy  root;  b,  a  root  on  which  the  lice   are  working;  c,  a  root 


DISEASES    OF    THE    GRAPE. 


83 


which  they  have  ravaged  and  deserted,  and  which  is  decaying; 
d,  d,  d,  lice  on  large  roots;  e,  the  female  pupa,  seen  from  above; 
f,  female  pupa,  seen  from  below;  g,  winged  female,  dorsal  view; 
h,  the  same,  ventral  view;  i,  antenna  of -the  winged  insect. 

While  the  insect  is  almost  always  found  upon  our  native  vines 
in  large  numbers,  especially  the  root  form,  their  vigor  of  growth 
seems  to  overcome  its  attack,  and  no  Dermanent  injury  results. 
No  remedy  has  been  successfully  applied. 

DISEASES. —  Varieties  that  have  originated  from  the  European 
grape,  wholly  or  in  part,  are  often  subject  to  the  mildew,  as  are 
also  native  varieties  under  certain  conditions.  It  is  a  fungus 
parasite  that  grows  in  the  tissue  of  the  leaf,  destroying  it  by 
penetrating  the  cell  wall  and  feeding  upon  the  food  prepared  for 
the  nourishment  of  the  vine.  When  mature,  the  fruit  of  the 
mildew  fungi  is  borne  upon  stalks  that  come  out  of  the  breathing 
pores  of  the  leaves,  and  appear  in  such  numbers  as  to  give  the 
leaf  a  mealy  appearance,  whence  the  name,  meal  dew,  or  mil- 
dew. It  makes  its  appearance  during  wet  weather,  when  the 
vine  is  in  an  unhealthy  condition  from 
any  cause.  It  is  doubtful  if  this  fun- 
gus will  grow  upon  perfectly  healthy 
tissue. 

Remedy. — Good  cultivation,  plenty 
of  sunlight  and  a  liberal  supply  of 
potash  and  bone  is  the  -best  remedy 
that  can  be  applied. 

GRAPE-BERRY  MOTH  (Endermis  bo- 
tiana)  is  destructive  only  when  abun- 
dant. Fig.  68  shows  the  perfect 
insect  at  a,  c  the  discolored  spot 
where  the  worm  has  entered  the  fruit, 
b  the  worm,  and  d  the  berry  it  has 
deserted.  There  is  no  practical  rem- 
edy, but  burning  the  fallen  leaves  to 
destroy  the  chrysalides  they  harbor  is  recommended. 


84:  THE    BLACKBERRY. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 


THE     BLACKBERRY     AND    RASP- 
BERRY. 


THEIR  PROPAGATION TRANSPLANTING CULTURE  —  PRUNING 

WINTER    PROTECTION VARIETIES GATHERING MARKETING 

PROFITS. 

THE  BLACKBERRY  (Rubus  inllosus')  is  a  native  fruit,  and  found 
in  almost  every  section  of  the  country.  The  fruit  i^  noted  for 
its  medicinal  qualities,  and  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  late  sum- 
mer fruits.  It  is  more  largely  grown  in  field  culture  on  the  thin 
soils  of  New  Jersey  than  in  any  other  section  of  the  country, 
from  whence  it  is  shipped  to  the  large  cities,  both  North  and 
South. 

The  Blackberry  is  very  commonly  planted  in  the  fruit  garden, 
in  some  out-of-the-way  corner,  where  it  is  allowed  to  spread  un- 
molested until  it  becomes  an  impenetrable  jungle,  where  neither 
man  nor  animals  can  get  at  the  fruit.  Then  we  hear  it  voted  a 
nuisance,  when  with  a  little  care  at  the  proper  time  it  would  have 
yiekied  an  abundance  of  rich  and  healthful  fruit. 

PROPAGATION. — The  Blackberry  is  naturally  propagated  by 
suckers  from  the  roots,  and  for  all  ordinary  purposes  no  other 
means  need  be  employed.  The  number  of  suckers  may  be 
largely  increased  by  running  a  sharp  spade  into  the  soil  in  the 
fall,  eight  or  ten  inches  deep,  near  the  plant,  at  intervals  of  every 
three  or  four  inches.  The  roots  thus  cut  off  will  throw  up 
numerous  shoots  and  result  in  independent  plants. 

The  Blackberry  is  also  propagated  bv  root  cuttings.  In  the 
fall  the  roots  are  dug  up,  using  everything  the  size  of  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  upward,  and  cutting  them  into  three 
or  four  inches  in  length.  These  are  put  in  beds  of  rich  soil  and 
covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  soil.  The  bed  should  be 
protected  from  severe  freezing  by  covering  it  with  from  ten  inches 
to  one  foot  of  mulching  material.  In  the  spring  this  mulch  is 


CULTURE    AND    PRUNING.  85 

taken  off,  and  each  piece  of  root  will  throrr  up  one  or  more  shoots 
and  make  good  plants.  Root  cuttings  are  sometimes  preserved 
in  boxes  of  soil,  buried  in  the  ground  during  the  winter,  and 
planted  in  the  bed  in  the  spring,  or  in  the  field,  where  they 
are  to  grow  permanently. 

TRANSPLANTING. — The  best  time  for  setting  out  Blackberries 
and  Red  Raspberries  is  in  the  fall,  although  they  may  be  set  with 
success  in  the  spring.  If  planted  in  the  fall,  a  shovelful  or  two 
of  soil  or  manure  should  be  put  around  the  plants  to  prevent 
their  being  thrown  out  by  the  frost.  The  Blackberry  will  grow 
upon  very  poor,  thin  soil,  and  upon  such  is  not  liable  to  winter- 
kill ;  but  to  obtain  large  fruit,  the  land  must  be  heavily  mulched 
during  June  and  July  to  prevent  the  escape  of  moisture.  When 
planted  upon  rich,  moist  land,  in  -order  to  be  certain  of  a  good 
crop,  the  canes  must  be  covered  in  the  winter,  as  directed  below. 

The  distance  for  planting  the  Blackberry  is  four  by  six  feet  for 
Wilson's  Early  and  other  small  growing  kinds,  and  four  by  eight 
feet  if  to  be  grown  in  rows,  or  six  by  eight  feet  if  to  be  grown  in 
hills,  for  the  larger  varieties.  They  are  planted  so  as  to  run  to- 
gether, forming  close  rows,  or  may  be  kept  in  hills  so  that  the 
work  of  cultivation  may  be  done  with  the  horse. 

CULTIVATION  AND  PRUNING. — There  are  few  crops  that  may 
be  so  easily  grown,  if  the  work  is  done  at  the  proper  time,  as  the 
Blackberry  ;  and  there  are  also  few  fruits,  that  if  neglected,  re- 
quire so  much  care  to  put  in  condition  again. 

The  hill  system  has  many  advantages,  and  among  others,  that 
the  suckers,  which  will  come  up  in  large  numbers,  may  be  kept 
down  entirely  with  the  cultivator,  going  both  ways,  while  in  the 
row  system  they  must  be  thinned  out  with  the  hoe  and  hook,  and  all 
suckers  not  wanted  in  the  hill  or  row  must  be  treated  as  weeds. 
If  no  mulch  is  used  when  the  fruit  is  maturing,  the  cultivator 
should  be  run  every  few  days  to  keep  the  soil  loose  and  light,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  moisture.  Late  cultivation,  that  is, 
after  August  first,  should  be  avoided,  on  account  of  its  tending  to 
cause  a  late  growth  of  cane,  that  is  very  liable  to  winter-kill. 

The  best  wa}"  to  destroy  suckers,  if  they  have  been  neglected 
until  too  woody  to  be  cut  off  with  the  hoe  (and  this  is  the  condi- 
tion of  many  blackberry  plantations),  is  to  put  on  a  thick  pair  of 
gloves  and  an  old  coat,  and  pull  them  out  in  June  or  July.  If 
pulled  at  this  time,  very  few  will  start  until  the  following 
spring. 

PRUNING. — The  success  of  Blackberry  and  Raspberry  cultiva- 
tion depends  largely  upon  pruning.  The  first  year,  at  planting, 
the  one  cane  used  should  be  cut  back  to  six  or  eight  inches. 
During  the  summer,  when  the  new  shoots  have  reached  two  feet 
in  height,  the  ends  must  be  pinched  to  make  them  stocky,  so  that 
they  will  not  require  support.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season's 
growth  the  old  cane  should  be  cut  out  entirely.  The  second  year 
the  canes  will  bear  some  fruit,  but  probably  not  enough  to  pay  to 


86  WINTER    PROTECTION. 

protect  by  mulching,  and  it  is  better  to  pick  the  blossoms  off,  that 
the  whole  strength  may  go  into  the  new  canes. 

The  same  process  of  summer  pruning  should  be  practiced,  as  the 
first  year,  to  make  the  canes  stocky,  and  only  a  limited  number  of 
the  strongest  canes  should  be  allowed  to  grow  in  each  row  or  hill. 
At  the  end  of  each  season's  growth  the  old  canes  are  again  cut 
out.  This  may  be  done  during  the  fall,  after  the  leaves  have 
turned  yellow ;  or,  what  is  a  better  practice,  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember, after  the  fruit  has  been  gathered,  so  as  to  allow  the  new 
canes  a  better  chance  to  develop.  The  third  season  from  plant- 
ing a  full  crop  of  fruit  may  be  expected,  and  the  process  of  prun- 
ing each  year  is  the  same  as  the  first  and  second  season.  No 
supports  are  needed  for  the  canes  if  they  have  been  properly 
summer  pruned. 

WINTER  PROTECTION. — It  is  doubtful  if  we  have  any  varieties 
of  this  fruit  that  are  perfectly  hardy  in  this  latitude.  Many  are 
claimed  to  be  perfectly  hardy  or  iron-clad,  but  in  unfavorable 
seasons  all  are  more  or  less  injured  by  cold.  For  this  reason 
some  protection  must  be  given,  and  laying  down  and  covering 
with  soil  should  be  resorted  to,  to  insure  the  crop.  This  will 
seem  like  a  formidable  undertaking  to  the  inexperienced  ;  yet  it 
is  very  easily  and  quickly  accomplished  by  three  men,  two  of 
whom  are  provided  with  thick  gloves  and  coat. 

The  men  with  gloves  gather  the  plants  of  a  hill  or  a  part  of  the 
row  in  their  hands  about  a  foot  from  the  ground,  and  with  a  strong 
pull  start  or  loosen  the  plants  at  the  roots  a  little,  and  then  bend 
them  over  to  the  ground,  all  the  time  pulling  the  canes  that  they 
may  not  break.  When  bent  to  the  ground,  the  third  man,  with 
a  spade,  throws  soil  enough  upon  the  ends  of  the  canes  to  keep 
them  in  place.  When  the  whole  field  has  been  laid  over  in  this 
manner,  a  plow  is  run  upon  each  side,  throwing  up  more  soil  and 
completely  covering  the  tops. 

Should  the  ground  be  covered  with  snow  during  the  winter, 
complete  covering  will  not  be  necessary,  and  the  canes  may  be 
laid  down  and  kept  in  place  by  heavy  rails.  Two  men  take  the 
rail  and  place  it  against  the  canes  of  several  hills  near  the  ground, 
press  firmly  against  it,  and  as  the  canes  bend  the  rail  is  raised  so 
that  when  bent  over  entirely  it  will  be  about  midway  of  the 
canes.  In  this  way  but  few  of  the  larger  canes  will  break,  and  it 
would  be  well  to  first  go  through  the  rows  and  loosen  them  at  the 
roots  before  using  the  rails. 

VARIP:TIES. 

Wachusett. — This  is  a  native  of  Massachusetts,  and  is  as  hardy 
as  any  variety,  having  been  injured  only  a  few  seasons  since  its 
introduction.  It  is  comparatively  free  from  thorns,  and  is  called 
the  "Thornless."  The  fruit  is  of  medium  size  and  of  fine  quality. 
In  rich  soil  the  fruit  is  of  good  size. 

Snyder. — A  variety  somewhat  resembling  the  last  in  fruit,  but 
a  little  larger,  more  vigorous  and  productive,  but  not  quite  as 
hardy. 


VARIETIES    OF   THE    BLACKBERRY.  87 

Agawam. — Resembles  the  Snyder,  but  is  earlier  and  perhaps  a 
little  larger  ;  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive. 

Wilson's  Early. — An  old,  tender  variety  of  small  growth,  but 
producing  very  large  early  berries  of  good  quality.  As  the  canes 
are  small,  they  may  be  easily  laid  down  and  treated  in  this  way. 
This  variety  would  probably  be  profitable. 

Kittatinny. — A  tender  variety  of  very  large  growth,  and  pro- 
ducing very  large  fruit  of  fine  quality  when  not  winter-killed ; 
must  be  covered. 

New  Varieties  of  Promise. — Wilson  Jr.,  Early  Harvest,  Early 
Cluster. 

GATHERING  AND  MARKETING. — The  Blackberry  is  picked  in 
quart  or  pint  strawberry  baskets  and  shipped  in  the  common 
crates.  If  gathered  while  yet  hard,  it  will  stand  two  days  with- 
out injury,  and,  in  fact,  will  improve  a  little  in  quality,  but  will 
not  be  as  good  as  when  gathered  perfectly  ripe  from  the  vines. 
If  picked  in  good  condition,  and  if  of  good  size,  it  sells  readily 
in  all  markets  at  .from  ten  to  twenty  cents  per  quart.  It  should 
be  planted  in  every  garden,  for  no  plant  will  produce  as  much 
fruit  with  so  little  care,  if  given  at  the  proper  time. 


88  THE    RED    RASPBERRY. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


THE    RASPBERRY. 


THE  RED  RASPBERRY  (Rubus  strigosus). — This  is  a  fruit  that 
always  commands  a  very  high  price,  and  is  ^being  extensively 
grown  in  many  sections.  It  requires  a  rather  more  moist  soil 
than  the  blackberry  to  produce  its  best  results. 

It  is  propagated  in  the  same  way  as  the  blackberry,  and  is 
best  planted  in  the  fall.  The  distance  of  planting  may  be  a  little 
less  than  for  the  blackberry,  or  about  five  by  six  feet  for  the  hill 
system,  and  three  by  six  feet  when  grown  in  rows.  The  pruning, 
training  and  covering  are  also  the  same  as  for  the  blackberry,  al- 
though, being  smaller  in  growth  and  having  less  prominent  thorns, 
it  is  much  more  pleasant  working  among  them. 

As  with  the  blackberry,  large  fruit  must  not  be  expected  from 
the  Red  Raspberry,  unless  the  land  is  made  rich  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  large  growth  of  canes,  although  such  a  growth  must  be 
protected  from  injury  during  the  winter,  and  an  abundance  of 
moisture  must  be  provided  at  the  time  of  ripening  by  mulching. 

The  fruit  is  very  soft,  and  is  generally  shipped  in  pint  or  third- 
quart  baskets.  It  is  also  very  perishable,  and  must  be  handled 
quickly,  or  there  is  a  loss  to  the  grower  or  dealer. 

VARIETIES. — Leaving  out  the  older  kinds,  some  of  which  are 
valuable  under  some  conditions,  but  all  very  tender,  I  shall  de- 
scribe only  those  that  are  comparatively  hardy  ;  although,  like  the 
blackberry,  none  are  perfectly  hardy  or  iron-clad,  and  all  are  ben- 
efited by  winter  covering. 

Turner. — One  of  the  hardiest,  most  productive  and  earliest,  but 
of  rather  small  size  and  crumbles  when  picked.  Under  high  cul- 
tivation it  will  prove  valuable  unless  the  two  new  early  Rasp- 
berries, the  Hansell  and  Marlboro,  shall  prove  as  early,  hardy  and 
productive. 

Cuthbert. — A  very  large,  rather  late  variety  of  large  size  ;  very 
vigorous  and  productive.  It  is  the  finest  variety  in  cultivation, 
but  its  lateness  is  an  objectionable  feature. 


THE    BLACK-CAP    OR    THIMBLEBERRY.  89 

Caroline. — A  yellow  variety,  partaking  something  of  the  nature 
of  both  the  Red  and  the  Black-cap  varieties  in  habit  of  growth. 
It  is  propagated  both  by  suckers  and  by  rooting  of  the  tips.  It 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  quality ;  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive, 
but  too  soft  for  distant  market.  It  should  be  in  every  garden. 

Hansell. — A  new  early  red  kind,  of  medium  size,  fine  color  and 
good  quality,  but  seems  not  to  be  very  vigorous  under  ordinary 
cultivation. 

Marlboro. — A  large,  vigorous-growing,  new  variety,  and  prom- 
ises to  be  as  good  as  the  Cuthbert,  and  perhaps  larger  in  size. 
The  last  two  kinds  require  further  test  in  northern  sections  to 
prove  their  hardiness. 

BLACK-CAP  RASPBERRY  (Riibus  occidental^') . — This  fruit,  known 
in  its  wild  state  as  the  Thimbleberry,  differs  in  its  method  of 
propagation,  as  well  as  in  habits  of  growth  and  color  of  fruit, 
Jrom  the  Red  Raspberry.  The  fruit  is  less  acid,  black  in  color, 
and  with,  perhaps,  seeds  larger  in  the  fruit  in  proportion  to  the 
pulp.  It  is  propagated  by  stolons,  that  is,  by  the  ends  of  the  canes 
bending  over  and  taking  root.  It  throws  no  suckers  from  the 
roots,  but  grows  in  hills  or  stools.  It  requires  a  rather  more 
moist,  rich  soil  than  either  the  Red  Raspberry  or  the  blackberry, 
and  produces  much  larger  crops  of  fruit.  The  time  of  ripening 
is  just  after  strawberries,  and  before  the  Red  Raspberry. 

The  distance  of  planting-  should  be  five  by  six  feet,  and  culti- 
vation is  best  done  with  the  horse,  running  the .  cultivator  both 
ways.  It  is  best  planted  in  the  spring,  and  begins  to  produce 
paying  crops  the  second  or  third  year.  The  pruning  required  is 
the  same  as  for  the  blackberry  and  Red  Raspberry,  but  a  second 
and  even  a  third  pinching  is  necessary  to  give  plants  a  close,  com- 
pact form,  that  will  not  need  support.  Many  growers  adhere  to 
the  old  system  of  supporting  with  stakes,  but  if  properly  pruned 
no  stakes  are  required.  Sometimes  the  canes  are  broken  down 
by  the  heavy  snows  of  winter,  and  then  the  best  support  that  can 
be  used  is  a  wire  about  three  or  four  feet  high,  supported  upon 
stakes  twenty  feet  apart.  This  should  not  be  put  up  until  near 
the  time  of  ripening  of  the  fruit.  A  single  strong  string  passed 
around  each  hill  and  tied  to  the  wire  is  all  the  support  required. 
After  fruiting,  the  wire  should  be  wound  up  and  put  away  so  that 
cultivation  may  take  place  both  ways. 

VARIETIES. 

Souhegan. — This  is  one  of  the  earliest  and  best.  It  is  similar 
to  the  Doolittle,  but  possibly  is  a  little  earlier  and  larger,  although 
the  latter  is  still  a  standard  sort,  and  is  much  increased  in  size  by 
good  cultivation. 

Hopkins. — Resembles  the  Souhegan  much,  very  early  and  pro- 
ductive. 

Centennial. — A  large,  medium-early  variety,  very  fine,  sweet 
and  productive ;  one  of  the  best. 


90 


THE    PESTS    OF    THE    KASPBERRY. 


or 


Mammoth  Cluster. — A  very  large,  late  variety,  covered  with  an 
abundance  of  bloom;  of  good  quality,  hardy  and  productive. 

Gregg. — A  late  variety  of  large  size,  finer  quality  and  with  less 
bloom  than  the  last ;  very  productive  but  not  as  hardy  as  the  other 
varieties  described. 

Yellow-cap. — This  is  an  old  variety,  very  common  in  old  gar- 
dens ;  of  fine  quality,  but  the  Caroline,  described  under  Red 
Raspberries,  is  superior  in  quality,  productiveness  and  hardiness. 

Shaffers. — A  cross  between  the  Red  and  Black-cap  Raspberry; 
fruit  large,  dark  red  and  very  acid;  valuable  for  preserving;  very 
vigorous  and  productive. 

INSECTS. — Few  insects  are  destructive  to  the  Raspberry 
blackberry.  The  Root-Borer  (JSgeria 
rubi)  Fig.  69,  a  being  the  male  and  b 
the  female,  is  a  small,  wasp-like  moth, 
resembling  the  peach-borer  somewhat, 
but  smaller.  The  .eggs  are  laid  dur- 
ing June  and  July,  on  the  canes  near 
the  ground.  The  egg  hatches,  and  the 
larva  eats  into  the  pith  of  the  cane 
and  passes  down  into  the  root.  Here 
it  continues  feeding  until  the  following 
spring,  when  it  comes  up  through  the 
center  of  another  cane,  where  it  un- 
dergoes its  changes  and  comes  out  the 
perfect  moth,  as  illustrated.  The  in- 
jured canes  generally  are  destroyed 
early  in  the  summer. 

Remedy. — The  presence  of  the  Root- 
Borer  is  generally  made  known  by  the  dying  of  the  new  canes 
early  in  the  summer,  and  the  remedy  is  to  cut  until  the  worm  is 
found. 

A  few  other  insects  are  sometimes  injurious  to  the  Raspberry 
and  blackberry,  but  not  so  much  so  as  to  warrant  description  in 
so  limited  a  work  as  this. 


THE   RED   CURRANT.  91 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


CURB  ANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY. 


THE  RED  CURRANT  (Ribes  rubrurri) — The  cultivation  and  use 
of  the  Currant  has  increased  rapidly  in  the  past  few  years,  and 
while  in  no  way  can  it  be  compared  with  the  grape  or  Strawberry 
in  the  large  amount  of  fruit  consumed,  yet  its  refreshing  acid 
makes  it  one  of  the  most  healthful  summer  fruits. 

PROPAGATION. — It  is  easily  propagated  by  cuttings  and  layers. 
Cuttings  are  best  made  when  the  leaves  begin  to  fade  in  August 
or  September.  They  are  made  of  the  new  wood,  from  six  to 
eight  inches  in  length,  and  should  be  planted  at  once,  in  a  very 
rich,  moist  loam,  as  directed  for  grape  cuttings  and  root-grafts; 
being  sure  to  give  the  soil  a  firm  pressure  around  the  base.  Be- 
fore the  ground  freezes  in  the  fall  the  bed  should  be  covered 
with  several  inches  of  mulch  to  prevent  the  action  of  frost  throw- 
ing them  out.  Cuttings  may  also  be  made  in  the  spring,  but  they 
do  not  root  so  readily  nor  make  as  strong  plants  as  when  planted 
in  the  fall.  At  one  or  two  years  they  are  ready  to  be  planted  in 
the  field. 

The  best  soil  for  the  growth  of  large  fruit  is  a  deep,  rich,  moist 
loam,  but  well  underdrained.  The  best  distance  for  planting  is 
four  by  six  feet.  This  will  allow  of  the  use  of  the  horse  in  cul- 
tivation, both  ways,  the  two  or  three  first  seasons.  Any  hoed 
crop  may  be  planted  between  the  rows,  one  way,  the  first  season. 
At  from  two  to  three  years  from  planting,  fruit  is  produced  in 
moderately  paying  quautities,and  with  good  cultivation  the  bushes 
may  be  expected  to  produce  good  crops  for  twenty-five  years. 
By  good  cultivation,  I  mean  the  annual  application  of  from  five 
to  ten  cords  of  good  stable  manure  per  acre,  or  its  equivalent  of 
bone  and  potash,  and  the  destruction  of  weeds  and  grass  before 
they  can  do  any  harm. 

PRUNING  AND  TRAINING. — The  Currant  is  trained  in  both  the 
bush  and  the  tree  form,  but  the  former  is  the  best,  except  for 
ornamental  gardens,  as  it  is  the  most  natural  method  of  growth, 
and  requires  the  least  labor. 


92  VARIETIES    OF   THE   CURRANT. 

The  fruit  is  borne  upon  short  spurs  on  the  wood  after  the  sec- 
ond year's  growth.  Young  wood  always  produces  the  best  fruit. 
All  the  pruning  required  is  to  cut  out  the  old  wood  when  it  be- 
comes weak  and  covered  with  moss  and  fruit  buds  but  produces 
little  foliage. 

GATHERING  AND  MARKETING. — Unlike  the  strawberry  and 
other  small  fruit,  the  Currant  may  be  allowed  to  remain  upon  the 
bushes  for  several  weeks  after  it  is  ripe,  but  it  does  not 
ship  quite  as  well  when  overripe  as  when  first  thoroughly  colored. 
It  is  commonly  picked  in  the  ordinary  strawberry  basket,  and 
shipped  in  crates  holding  thirty-two  or  sixty  quart  boxes  or  bas- 
kets. Care  should  be  taken  to  pick  the  fruit  with  the  stems,  for 
if  the  berry  is  pulled  off  the  stems  the  skin  is  broken,  and  it  soon 
decays. 

The  price  obtained  for  good  fruit  ranges  from  five  to  fifteen 
cents  per  quart  at  retail,  and  it  is  a  profitable  crop  at  these 
prices. 

VARIETIES. — While  there  are  many  distinct  varieties  of  the 
Currant,  the  great  value  of  any  and  all  kinds  is  determined  by 
the  cultivation  given.  All  varieties  may  be  made  large  and 
showy  if  the  methods  of  cultivation  just  described  are  closely 
followed.  The  claim  of  Fuller  and  others  "  that  the  differences 
in  the  red  varieties  are  wholly  due  to  cultivation,"  is,  I  think, 
incorrect. 

Cherry. — This  variety  is  stocky  and  vigorous  in  growth,  with 
a  short  bunch  a*id  a  large  acid  berry. 

La  Versaillaise. — Bush  more  straggling  and  larger  than  the  last; 
bunch  longer,  berry  not  quite  as  large,  but  of  better  quality. 

Victoria. — Resembles  the  last  in  form  of  branch,  but  is  more 
acid  and  valuable  for  its  lateness. 

Fay's  Prolific. — This  is  a  new  variety,  resembling  the  Cherry, 
but  claimed  to  be  more  productive.  Its  only  merit,  if  it  has  any 
above  the  older  varieties,  is  in  its  productiveness. 

Red  Dutch. — An  old  variety,  very  productive,  and  fruit  of  fine 
quality.  Under  good  cultivation  it  becomes  of  good  size,  and  is 
profitable. 

White  Grape. — The  white  currants  are  less  acid  and  of  better 
quality  than  the  red  kinds,  but  not  as  valuable.  This  is  one  of 
the  best  varieties  in  quality  and  size. 

White  Dutch. — Resembles  the  Red  Dutch  in  habit  of  growth 
and  fruit;  very  productive. 

Black  (Ribes  nigra). — In  some  sections  this  fruit  finds  ready 
sale.  Its  immense  productiveness  would  make  it  very  profitable 
if  there  was  a  demand  for  the  fruit.  There  is  a  very  promising 


INSECTS    AFFECTING    THE    CURRANT. 


93 


field  for  experiment  in  this  line  in  the  production  of  new  varie- 
ties. It  a  variety  equally  productive,  of  an  improved  quality, 
can  be  produced  by  hybridization  or  otherwise,  the  originator  can 
make  considerable  money  out  of  it. 

INSECTS. —  The  Currant 
Worm  (Nematus  ventricosus) 
is  shown  in  Fig.  70,  a  being 
the  male,  and  b  the  female, 
both  enlarged  to  twice  their 
natural  size.  This  is  the 
most  destructive  insect  that 
attacks  the  Currant.  The  fe- 
male lays  its  eggs  upon  the 
veins  of  the  under  side  of  leaf 
(as  shown  in  Fig.  71).  Soon 
after  they  unfold  the  larvaB, 
which  hatch  in  a  few  days, 
and  are  illustrated  at  Fig.  72, 
feed  rapidly,  often  denuding 
the  bushes  in  a  short  time, 
and,  soon  maturing,  make  a 
cocoon,  either  upon  dry  sub- 
stance  near,  or  in  the  ground. 
In  the  latter  part  of  June  the 
fly  (Fig.  70,  6,)  escapes  from  the  cocoon  and  lays  more  eggs, 
which  hatch  out,  and  the  second  brood  appears  just  as  the  fruit 
i.s  beginning  to  ripen,  and  often  strips  the  vines  of  leaves  in  a  few 
days,  leaving  the  half-ripened  fruit 
only. 

Remedy. — The  best  and  safest 
remedy  is  Pyrethrum  powder,  ap- 
plied just  at  night.  It  is  a  sure 
remedy,  and  is  harmless,  while 
hellebore,  so  often  recommended, 
although  nearly  as  effective,  is 
very  poisonous,  and  cannot  be  used 
with  safety  when  the  fruit  is  ripen- 
ing. Planting  a  few  H  ought  on 
Seedling  gooseberry  bushes  among 
the  currants  will  aid  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  worms,  as  they 
have  a  great  liking  for  the  tender  Fi"-  71- 

leaves  of  this  gooseberry,  and  the  first  brood  will  be  found  al- 
most entirely  upon  them.  A  few  other  insects  are  injurious  to 
the  Currant  and  gooseberry,  but  none  that  seriously  endanger 
the  crop. 

IMPORTED  CURRANT  BORER  (sEyeria  tipuliformis)  burrows  in 

the  interior  of  the  stems,  so   weakening   them    that   they  cannot 

ustaiii  the  weight  of  the  fruit.     Fig.  73  shows  the  female  moth, 


94 


THE    CURRANT    WORM. 


and  b,  Fig.  74,  the  larva  which  hatches  from  its  eggs  and  does  the 
mischief;  a,  Fig.  74,  is  the  chrysalis.     Cutting   out   and   burning 


Fig.  73. 


Fig.  74. 


all   stems   that   by  their  sickly   appearance    indicate  the  bjrer's 
presence  is  the  only  remedy. 


THE   GOOSEBERRY.  95 

THE     GOOSEBERRY. 


AMERICAN  GOOSEBERRY  (Ribes  hirtellum}.      EUROPEAN  GOOSE- 
BERRY   (Ribes  grossularicC) . 

In  methods  of  cultivation  and  propagation  the  treatment  of  the 
Gooseberry  is  the  same  as  above  outlined  for  the  currant.  The 
Gooseberry  is  not  a  fruit  that  finds  a  ready  sale  in  large  quanti- 
ties in  our  markets,  but  is  desirable  for  the  home  garden. 
Among  the  best  native  are  : 

Downing. — This  is  a  round,  greenish- white  berry  of  medium 
large  size,  with  a  thin  skin  ;  very  productive,  vigorous,  and  of 
good  quality. 

Smith's  Improved. — A  medium  to  large  yellow  berry,  with  a 
thicker  skin  than  the  last,  and  of  rather  better  quality;  bush  not 
quite  as  vigorous,  but  productive. 

Among  the  best  of  the  English  varieties  are  : 

RED.  YELLOW. 

Crown  Bob,  Whitesmith, 

Ashton,  Sulphur  Yellow. 

Ironmonger.  Industry. 


96  THE     STRAWBERRY. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 


THE    STRAWBERRY. 


IMPORTANCE SPECIES — PROPAGATION SOIL — TIME  OF  PLANTING 

METHODS THE  HILL  SYSTEM — MATTED  ROW  CULTURE MAN- 
URING   WINTER  PROTECTION CULTURE VARIETIES  —  GATH- 
ERING AND  MARKETING — INSECTS  AND  DISEASES — CROSS  FER- 
TILIZATION. 

The  Strawberry  is  pre-eminently  a  home  fruit.  Its  early  ripen- 
ing, ease  of  cultivation,  quick  returns  and  large  yield  per  acre, 
make  it  one  of  the  most  important  fruits.  It  succeeds  at  the 
far  South  and  the  cold  North,  as  far  as  any  of  the  common  crops 
can  be  cultivated,  and  being  readily  shipped  a  long  distance,  it 
may  be  found  in  our  markets  from  February  to  August. 

The  varieties  now  under  cultivation  have  originated  from  sev- 
eral species  of  the  genus  Fragaria.  Fragaria  vesca  is  the  Euro- 
pean; F.  Virginiana,  the  common  American,  and  F.  grandiflora, 
the  South  American  Strawberry.  These  species  have  become  so 
crossed,  intermixed  and  improved  by  cultivation,  that  the  typical 
form  of  either  is  seldom  seen  in  cultivated  varieties. 

PROPAGATION. — The  Strawberry  naturally  propagates  itself 
rapidly  by  runners,  and  in  case  of  new  or  scarce  varieties  it  is 
sometimes  propagated  by  division  of  the  crowns. 

SOIL. — Although  it  succeeds  in  a  great  variety  of  soils,  that 
best  adapted  to  the  production  of  fruit  is  a  medium,  deep,  sandy 
loam,  that  is  not  affected  by  drouth.  Upon  a  heavy,  moist  soil, 
the  plants  tend  to  run  too  much  to  vines  and  produce  little  fruit; 
while  in  a  light  soil,  more  fruit  is  generally  set  than  the  plants  can 
mature,  and  consequently  little  or  none  of  it  is  as  good  as  it 
should  be. 

The  most  perfect  condition  for  the  growth  of  this  fruit  is  a 
light  soil,  with  facilities  for  an  abundant  supply  of  water  during 
the  ripening  period  and  whenever  a  period  of  drouth  may  occur. 
These  conditions,  however,  are  difficult  to  obtain.  For  general 
purposes  a  more  moist  soil  should  be  selected,  using  fertilizers 
containing  those  elements  that  tend  to  increase  the  amount  and 


METHODS    OF    PLANTING.  97 

quality  of  fruit — potash  and  phosphoric  acid — instead  of  the  ni- 
trogenous kinds  like  stable  manure,  which  tend  to  the  large  de- 
velopment of  leaf  at  the  expense  of  the  fruit.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  large  and  perfect  fruit  cannot  be  produced 
without  a  large  development  of  perfect  foliage;  and  the  grower 
must  use  good  judgment  in  the  application  of  fertilizing  material 
according  to  his  soil.  Fine  ground  bone  and  potash  will  be  found 
the  best  fertilizer  that  can  be  used  under  general  conditions,  add- 
ing more  nitrogen  if  the  soil  be  very  poor;  or  only  applying 
potash  if  the  soil  is  already  very  rich  in  nitrogen. 

TIME  OF  PLANTING. — The  best  time  for  planting  is  in  the 
spring.  August  planting  is  not  to  be  recommended,  unless  one 
has  time  to  do  the  work  more  thoroughly  than  in  the  spring. 
Fall  set  plants  seldom  make  growth  enough  to  give  paying  crops 
the  first  season,  and  the  plants  start  in  the  spring  in  a  hard  and 
often  weedy  soil  that  is  difficult  to  keep  clean.  When  planted  in  the 
spring  the  soil  is  light,  loose  and  free  from  weeds,  and  the  plants 
make  a  strong,  rapid  growth,  that  will  give  the  best  crop  that 
can  possibly  be  produced  the  following  season. 

The  best  growers,  who  raise  fruit  for  profit,  never  set  their 
plants  in  the  fall,  and  the  small  cultivator  can  hardly  expect  to 
improve  upon  their  methods.  It  sometimes  is  advisable,  when  one 
has  no  Strawberry  bed  in  the  garden,  and  is  desirous  of  having 
fruit  at  the  earliest  possible  moment,  to  plant  as  early  in  August 
as  is  possible,  potted  plants  or  well  rotted  layers  with  soil  upon 
the  roots;  but  if  the  cost  is  reckoned  against  the  value  of  the 
fruit  produced,  it  will  be  found  a  losing  rather  than  a 
paying  operation.  I  would  say,  however,  set  Strawberry  plants 
in  August  or  even  later,  rather  than  have  110  Strawberry  bed  in 
the  home  garden. 

METHODS  OF  PLANTING. — Of  the  many  methods  or  systems 
of  planting  and  cultivation,  I  will  mention  only  a  very  few  that 
are  most  generally  in  use.  In  the 

Hill  System,  the  plants  are  set  in  rows  two  and  one-half  to  three 
feet  apart,  and  one  foot  apart  in  the  row,  and  all  the  runners  are 
kept  cut,  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  season  larg*e  stools  are  produced, 
the  leaves  of  which  touch  together  and  only  a  space  of  about  one 
foot  is  left  between  the  rows.  This  requires  a  large  number  of 
plants — from  twelve  thousand  to  fifteen  thousand  per  acre — and 
much  more  care  in  cultivation,  but  the  fruit  is  very  large  and  of 
fine  qua-lit}',  and  brings  the  highest  price. 

A  modified  form  of  this  system  is  to  plant  two  and  one-half  by 
three  feet,  and  during  the  early  part  of  the  season  cultivate  both 
ways  with  the  horse.  When  the  runners  begin  to  grow  vigorous- 
ly, the  strongest  are  trained  into  the  spaces  across  the  widest  way, 
filling  up  so  that  they  stand  about  one  by  three  feet  apart,  when 
all  other  runners  are  destroyed.  In  this  way,  between  five  and 
six  thousand  plants  are  sufficient  to  set  an  acre,  while  the  results 
are  perhaps  equally  satisfactory  as  by  the  full  hill  system. 

7 


98  MATTED    ROW    SYSTEM. 

The  Matted  Roiv  System  consists  in  planting  in  rows  three  and 
one-half  or  four  feet  apart,  and  two  feet  in  the  rows.  Cultiva- 
tion with  the  horse  is  done  but  one  way  and  the  plants  are  allow- 
ed to  run  in  beds  covering  the  ground  all  but  about  a  foot  space 
between  the  rows.  By  this  method  wonderful  crops  are  some- 
times reported,  and  the  labor  the  earlier  part  of  the  season  is 
comparatively  light;  but  when  the  plants  cover  nearly  the  entire 
ground  it  is  slow  work  getting  out  the  weeds  from  among  the 
plants  without  injury. 

This  system  is  modified  by  allowing  the  runners  to  take  root  at 
intervals  of  six  to  ten  inches  over  the  bed,  more  or  less  regulaily, 
and  then  destroying  all  other  runners.  By  this  means  nearly  the 
same  result  is  obtained  as  by  the  modified  hill  system. 

The  advantage  of  the  horse  cultivator  or  hoe  over  the  hand- 
hoe  for  destroying  the  weeds  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  has 
led  to  the  method  of  planting  four  by  four  feet.  This  requires 
less  than  three  thousand  plants  to  the  acre.  The  cultivator  is 
run  both  ways  until  the  runners  interfere.  Then  the  rows  or  beds 
are  filled  up  one  way  by  transplanting  the  plants  into  the  vacant 
space,  setting  them  from  six  to  ten  inches  apart,  thus  making  a 
modified  matted  row.  This  is  one  of  the  best  methods  that  can 
be  practiced. 

For  the  home  garden,  the  plants  may  be  grown  by  any  of  the 
above  systems,  but  if  co  be  grown  in  hills,  and  the  work  of  cul- 
tivation is  to  be  done  by  the  hand-hoe,  they  may  be  planted  more 
closely.  The  only  conditions  that  are  necessary  in  the  garden 
culture  is  to  give  the  plants  the  proper  amount  of  room,  and  have 
them  arranged  so  that  the  fruit  may  be  gathered  conveniently. 
Of  course  an  abundance  of  proper  plant  food  must  be  supplied. 

Under  whatever  system  the  Strawberry  may  be  grown,  the 
plants  must  have  an  abundance  of  room  and  food  to  produce 
strong  and  well  matured  crowns,  which  are  essential  to  the  pro- 
duction of  larg-e  and  abundant  fruit.  The  land  must  be  kept  free 
from  weeds  during  the  entire  season,  but  as  little  stirring  of  the 
soil  should  be  done  after  September  first  as  possible. 

WINTER  PROTECTION. — When  the  ground  is  not  covered  with 
snow  during  the  winter,  the  plants  must  be  protected  from  the 
alternations  of  freezing  and  thawing.  This  is  done  by  covering- 
lightly  with  a  litter  that  is  free  from  weed  seeds.  The  covering 
should  not  be  put  on  until  the  ground  freezes,  unless  there  is 
danger  of  the  plants  being  covered  up  with  snow,  in  which  case 
it  should  either  be  put  on  or  held  in  readiness  so  that  it  may  be 
put  on  at  short  notice  when  the  ground  may  be  uncovered  during 
the  winter.  The  lighter  or  thinner  the  covering  the  better,  pro- 
vided it  afford  shade  to  the  plants.  Among  the  materials  most 
used  for  this  purpose  are  meadow  hay  or  sedge  grass,  salt  marsh 
hay,  forest  leaves,  pine  needles,  fine  brash,  pine  boughs,  etc. 

In  the  spring  this  covering  must  be  drawn  from  over  the 
crowns  of  the  plants  and  be  trodden  in  between  the  rows,  thus 


WINTER    PRO  TECTION — VARIETIES.  99 

affording  protection  to  the  fruit  from  dirt  and  serving  as  a  mulch 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  moisture  while  the  fruit  is  ripening. 

After  the  fruit  has  been  gathered,  if  the  bed  is  very  weedy  the 
plants,  together  with  the  mulch,  may  be  plowed  under  and  a  crop 
of  late  cabbage  or  turnips  planted.  If  the  Strawberry 
plot  is  comparatively  free  from  weeds,  the  bed  may  be  cleared 
up  with  profit  for  fruiting  again,  by  first  running  the  mowing  ma- 
chine over  it,  and  then  raking  up  the  cut  tops  and  as  much  of  the 
mulch  as  possible  with  the  horse-rake.  The  plow  is  then  run 
between  the  rows,  leaving  a  row  of  plants  eight  or  ten  inches 
wide.  The  plow  is  to  be  followed  with  the  harrow  or  cultivator 
lengthwise  and  then  all  weeds  are  hoed  out  between  the  plants. 
A  bed  treated  in  this  way  will  often  yield  nearly  as  many  quarts 
the  second  season  as  the  first,  but  the  fruit  will  be  smaller  and 
often  of  inferior  quality.  Should  the  growth  of  the  plants  show 
the  need  of  it,  a  dressing  of  stable  manure  or  fertilizer  should 
be  applied  upon  the  plants  in  the  fall. 

VARIETIES. — The  varieties  of  Strawberries  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes  according  to  the  flowers:  The  pistillate,  which  must 
be  planted  near  other  kinds  producing  an  abundance  of  stamens ; 
and  the  perfect  flowered  kinds,  that  produce  both  stamens  and 
pistils.  The  former  are  often  more  productive  than  the  latter. 

Among  the  sorts  most  valuable  for  market  and  also  for  home 
consumption,  in  order  of  ripening  are: 

Crescent. — This  is  a  very  early  pistillate  variety,  vigorous,  and 
one  of  the  most  productive.  In  quality  it  is  rather  poor,  but  its 
fine  color  and  perfect  form  make  it  a  very  attractive  variety  in 
the  market.  It  easily  takes  the  place  of  the  old  Wilson.  It 
must  be  planted  with  some  perfect  flowering  kind.  Every  fifth 
or  even  tenth  row,  set  with  plants  of  the  Miner's  or  Downing  va- 
rieties will  be  sufficient  to  fertilize  the  Crescent. 

Miner's. — This  is  a  very  hardy,  vigorous,  perfect  flowered  va- 
riety, the  fruit  of  which  somewhat  resembles  the  Downing ;  but 
it  is  more  productive,  vigorous  and  nearly  equal  in  quality.  The 
fruit  is  large  and  ripens  soon  after  the  Crescent. 

Sharpless. — This  variety,  so  well  known  on  account  of  its  large 
and  irregular-shaped  berry,  is  proving  a  profitable  market  and 
home  berry  under  good  cultivation  and  in  a  light  soil.  The  fruit 
is  sweet,  but  lacking  the  lively  acid  so  desirable  in  a  fruit  at  this 
season  of  the  year.  The  flowers  are  perfect,  and  it  may  be  used 
to  fertilize  the  Manchester,  but  does  not  blossom  early  enough  to 
fertilize  the  first  flowers  of  the  Crescent. 

Manchester. — This  is  a  late  pistillate  variety  of  fine  form,  good 
color  and  quality,  and  very  productive.  It  must  be  fertilized 
with  some  perfect  flowered  kind,  like  the  Sharpless. 

The  four  above  mentioned  varieties  are  more  generally  proving 
valuable  than  any  other  kinds.  The  Downing,  which  has  been 
very  popular,  and  is  still  grown  in  many  sections,  is  superceded 
by  Miner's  for  market. 


100  GATHERING     AND     SHIPPING. 

ADDITIONAL  VARIETIES  or  MERIT. — Hervey  Davis,  Bidwell, 
Golden  Defiance,  Jersey  Queen,  Jumbo. 

NEW  VARIETIES. — Jewell,  May  King,  Henderson,  Parry,  Mrs. 
Garfield,  Prince  of  Berries. 

GATHERING  AND  SHIPPING. — In  this  latitude  picking  generally 
begins  from  the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth  of  June.  Sometimes  it  be- 
gins a  few  days  earlier  and  lasts  from  the  first  to  the  fifteenth  of 
July.  The  introduction  of  the  Crescent  and  Manchester  has 
lengthened  the  season  for  profitable  market  berries  nearly  one 
week. 

In  the  field  the  berries  are  generally  picked  by  women  and 
children,  the  average  price  paid  for  picking  being  about  two  cents 
per  box.  When  the  crop  is  not  large  and  an  abundance  of  good 
pickers  can  be  obtained,  it  is  often  best  to  hire  the  pickers  by  the 
clay.  The  work  will  always  be  done  better,  and  the  care  and 
strain  of  looking  after  a  lot  of  unruly  boys  is  avoided. 

The  basket  generally  used  is  the  square  chip  basket.  It  should 
be  made  of  smooth  material,  with  openings  not  over  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  between  the  parts  and  less  is  better.  If  the  openings 
are  large,  the  berries  are  pressed  against  the  edges  and  injured. 
A  square  box  made  of  two  Dieces  with  a  cover,  caller1  the  "  Sun- 
nyside  basket,"  is  very  useful  for  retailing  the  fruit  in,  but  is  not 
as  durable  and  not  convenient  to  take  to  the  field  for  picking. 
The  crates  most  commonly  used  for  shipping  hold  thirty-two  of 
the  quart  boxes,  fitting  so  closely  as  not  to  be  moved  about  in 
handling.  The  sixty-quart  crate  is  fast  going  out  of  use. 

Several  methods  of  recording  the  number  of  baskets  of  berries 
picked  by  each  picker  are  in  vogue,  but  perhaps  the  best  is  to 
give  each  one  a  tray  holding  six  baskets,  which  when  full  he 
carries  to  the  packing  shed  and  gets  credit  for  his  work.  One 
person  is  required  in  the  field  for  every  twenty  pickers  to  see 
that  they  pick  clean  and  well,  and  another  man  at  the  packing 
stand  to  keep  the  record  and  pack  the  fruit.  It  is  well,  in  order 
to  k^ow  whether  all  the  pickers  are  doing  good  work,  to  turn  an 
occasional  box  into  an  empty  one.  In  this  way,  any  attempt  to 
cheat,  by  putting  poor  berries  into  the  bottom  of  the  box,  is  soon 
detected. 

The  berries  are  picked  every  day  raid  it  is  best  to  have  pickers 
enough  to  have  the  day's  picking  gathered  early  in  the  morning 
or  late  in  the  afternoon,  according  as  it  may  accommodate  the 
trains  or  other  means  of  transportation  employed  and  the  mar- 
kets to  which  they  are  to  be  shipped.  Picked  in  the  cooler  part 
of  the  day,  unless  it  is  wet,  the  fruit  reaches  the  market  in  a 
much  better  condition  than  if  picked  in  the  hot  sun. 

The  best  market  is  generally  the  local  one  unless  over-stocked, 
or  some  near  market  a  little  further  north.  TLe  time  is  passed 
for  fancy  prices  for  the  first  native  fruit  in  northern  markets, 
owing  to  the  introduction  of  southern  fruit;  yet  the  first  natives 
always  bring  a  much  higher  price  than  the  imported  southern 


INSECT      PESTS. 


101 


berries,  and  the  greatest  profit  is  obtained  from  the  early  kinds. 
Late  kinds  are  not  as  profitable  for  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  the 
price  up  very  much  for  late  berries,  when  it  has  once  reached  a 
low  point. 

INSECTS. — Only  a  few  insects  are  destructive  to  the  Strawberry. 
Perhaps  the  most  injurious  is  the  larv?e  of  the 

June  Bug  or  May  Beetle  (Lachnosterna  fusca) . — This  beetle  lays 
its  eggs  only  in  soil  that  contains  grass  or  other  roots  for  its  young 
to  feed  upon  in  May.  The  larva,  the  common  large  white  worm, 
always  found  in  turf  land,  feeds  two  or  three  years  in  the  soil  be- 
fore it  changes  to  the  perfect  state.  In  land  that  has  not  been 
cultivated  more  than  one  year,  these  worms  remain,  and  as  the 
roots  of  the  grasses  are  destroyed  in  plowing,  they  have  nothing 
to  feed  upon  but  the  roots  of  such  plants  as  may  be  grown.  If 
these  plants  be  those  of  the  Strawberry,  of  which  the  worms 
seem  particularly  fond,  many  plants  will  be  destroyed  and  others 
very  much  injured. 

Remedy. — The  only  certain  remedy  that  can  be  given  is  to  plant 
only  upon  land  that  has  been  cultivated  at  least  two  years  with 
some  other  crop. 

The  Root  Borer  (Anarsia  lineatella.) 
The  moth  (Fig.  75)  lays  its  egg  in  the 
crown  of  the  plant  in  midsummer,  hatch- 
ing in  a  short  time,  and  burrowing  into 
the  root  remains  there  during  the 
winter,  causing  the  plant's  death  by 
injuring  the  roots.  Pulling  and  burning 
the  plants  is  the  only  remedy.  The 
worm  sometimes  bores  in  peach  twigs, 
as  shown  in  the  lower  figure  in  the  illus- 
tration. 

The  Crown  Borer  (Tyloderma  f rag- 
arm. — Fig.  76,  a,  the  larva  that  does  the 
boring  ;  6,  side  view,  and  c,  back  view 
of  the  beetle  that  lays  the  egg,  all  much 
enlarged;  destroys  plants  by  boring  into  the  crowns.  Pulling  and 
bi  ruing  immediately  after  the  fruit  harvest,  and  before  the  per- 
fect beetle  comes  out,  is  the  only  remedy,  and  it  is  not  effective. 

There  are  a  few  other  insects  that  at  times  do  some  harm 
to  the  Strawberry  plants  or  fruit,  but  none  of  sufficient  import- 
ance to  be  described  here. 

DISEASES. — The  Strawberry,  under  favorable  conditions,  is 
seldom  affected  by  disease.  When  the  plants  have  become  weak- 
ened by  some  cause,  as  over-bearing,  want  of  food  or  poor 
cultivation,  a  fungus  attacks  the  leaves  and  often  destroys  them. 
It  first  appears  as  a  few  round  spots  upon  the  leaf;  these  in- 
crease until  the  leaf  is  nearly  covered  with  them,  when  it 
turns  brown  and  dries  up- 


102 


CROSS    FERTILIZATION. 


The  Remedy,  like  that  for  all  fungus 
diseases  attacking  plants  or  animals,  is  to  keep 
the  plants  in  good  condition  by  the  use  of  an 
abundance  of  proper  plant  food. 

CROSS  FERTILIZATION. — This  is  a  subject 
that  has  caused  some  discussion  among  leading 
horticulturists.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the 
quality  of  the  fruit  of  pistillate  varieties  is 
changed  or  modified  by  the  kind  of  pollen 
used  to  fertilize  the  blossoms;  that  if  the  pol- 
len of  a  very  acid  berry  be  used,  the  fruit  will 
be  more  acid  than  if  the  pollen  of  a  sweeter 
berry  was  employed.  While  this  theory  has 
the  sanction  of  some  prominent  horticulturists, 
I  cannot  but  feel  that  it  is  not  founded  upon 
any  positive  knowledge  of  the  claimants,  and 
is  unreasonable  in  the  light  of  our  present 
knowledge  of  plant  growth. 

In  no  instance  where  two  varieties  or  species 
are  crossed,  as  far  as  my  knowledge  goes,  does 
the  change  thus  caused  in  the  individual  ovary 
affect  the  receptacle  upon  which  it  is  borne. 
The  true  fruit  of  the  Strawberry  is  what  are 
called  the  seeds,  which  are  simply  numerous 
individual  ovaries  situated  upon  the  fleshy 
receptacle — the  edible  part  of  the  fruit.  These 
little  ovaries  are  fertilized  by  minute  pollen 
grains,  perhaps  not  over  one-four-hundredth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  fall  upon  the 
stigmas  and  seeds  down  pollen  tubes  perhaps 
not  one-tenth  of  the  mass  of  the  grain.  The 
contents  of  the  end  of  this  tube,  possibly  not 
more  than  one-four-thousandth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  unites  with  a  minute  cell, 
Fig  76.  perhaps  not  much  larger.  The  result  is 

a  vitalized  cell,  in  which  is  centered  all  the  forces  that  make 
the  plant  resulting  from  it  unlike  other  plants  that  come  from 
other  seeds  upon  the  same  receptacle.  This  vitalized  cell  simply 
receives  the  crude  sap  or  food  furnished  it  by  the  root,  stem  and 
leaf,  and  transforms  this  food  into  starch,  sugar  and  other  sub- 
stances for  the  nourishment  of  its  own  structure,  the  embryo. 

The  present  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  plant  life  leads  me  to 
believe  that  the  ovary  is  nourished  by  the  cellular  structure  of  the 
other  parts  of  the  plant,  and  it  does  not  furnish  any  material 
that  can  in  any  way  modify  the  composition  of  even  so  nearly 
related  a  part  as  the  receptacle  upon  which  it  grows. 

When  it  can  be  proved  that  the  composition  of  the  cob  is 
changed  when  different  varieties  of  corn  mix,  then  we  shall  have 
reason  to  believe  that  the  receptacle  of  the  Strawberry  can  be 
changed  under  like  circumstances. 


THE    FRUIT    GARDEN.  103 


CHAPTER  XX. 


THE    FRUIT    GARDEN. 


The  fruit  garden  is  a  necessity  to  comfortable  existence  in  the 
country.  The  average  farmer's  fruit  garden  consists  of  a  few 
apple  trees  distributed  about  the  farm;  a  few  neglected  pear, 
peach  and  plum  trees  in  various  places  about  the  buildings;  a 
cherry  tree  or  two  in  the  front  yard  of  the  house;  currant  bushes 
and  perhaps  a  few  raspberries  and  blackberries  over-run  with 
grass  and  weeds  along-  a  wall  or  in  some  fence  corner;  and  a 
strawberry  bed  so  choked  with  grass  and  weeds  that  fruit  is  very 
small  and  difficult  to  find. 

So  much  of  enjoyment  and  healthful  food  can  be  produced 
from  a  srna-1  piece  of  land,  that  no  home  should  be  without  a  well 
organized  fruit  garden,  and  the  best  land  of  the  farm  is  none 
too  good. 

The  location  s-hould  be  near  the  house  where  it  can  receive  at- 
tention at  odd  moments,  and  away  from  obstructions,  like  walls 
and  fences,  so  that  the  work  of  cultivation  may  be  done  largely 
with  the  horse. 

In  the  planting  of  a  fruit  garden  it  is  of  almost  as  much  im- 
portance to  have  a  plan  to  go  by,  as  in  building  a  house  or  barn. 
It  is  surprising  how  much,  and  what  a  great  variety,  may  be 
grown  on  a  small  area  when  properly  arranged.  To  illustrate, 
let  us  take  a  plot  100  by  100  feet,  or  nearly  one-fourth  of  an 
acre.  Plant  four  rows  of  apple  trees  of  four  trees  each,  thirty- 
three  and  one-third  feet  apart,  making  sixteen  in  all;  between 
the  trees  in  the  apple  rows  may  be  planted  twelve  pear  trees, 
almost  seventeen  feet  apart;  between  these  rows  may  be  planted 
seven  trees  each  of  peach,  plum  and  cherry,  a  little  more  than 
sixteen  and  one-half  feet  apart.  Now  between  these  rows  of 
trees  may  be  planted  grapes,  currants,  raspberries  and  blackber- 
ries, over  eight  feet  apart,  leaving  two  spaces  over  sixteen  feet 


104  PLAN  OF  THE  FRUIT  GARDEN. 

wide  for  strawberries,  and  eight  spaces  over  eight  feet  apart  and 
the  spaces  between  the  trees  and  small  fruits  for  planting  with 
vegetables.  We  here  present  a  diagram  of  the  plan: 


1— Apple  and  Pear.  7— Plum. 

2— Grape.  8— Blackberries. 

3— Peach.  <)—  A]>;>!"  and  Pear. 

4— Currant.  M— Strawberries,  etc.    • 

5— Apple  and  Pear.  11— Cherries. 

6— Raspberries.  12— Strawberries. 
13— Apple  and  Pear. 

This  may  seem  to  many  to  be  a  much  larger  crop  than  any  but 
the  very  best  of  land  can  support,  but  the  farmer  and  gardener, 
to  be  successful,  must  use  his  land  only  as  a  place  in  which  to 
manufacture  his  crops,  as  the  manufacturer  does  his  factory,  and 
if  the  raw  material  is  not  already  in  the  soil  (his  factory),  he 
must  go  to  market  and  buy  it.  It  will  be  found,  however,  that 
on  most  soils  the  addition  of  the  fertilizing  material  necessary  to 
grow  the  vegetables  that  can  be  planted  on  the  land,  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  enable  the  trees  to  make  all  the  growth  they  ought  ta 
make  until  they  begin  to  bear  fruit.  To  insure  a  healthy  and 
fruit-producing  growth  of  fruit  trees  and  small  fruits,  wood 
ashes,  ground  bone,  potash  and  the  phosphates  should  be  ust  d. 

If  it  is  thought  best  not  to  plant  the  full  amount  at  ov.o?,  the 
larger  trees  may  be  planted,  and  one  or  two  plants  of  each  o*  the 
small  fruits,  from  which,  with  a  little  care  and  skiUr  p-'nnts 
enough  may  be  propagated  in  a  year  or  two  to  comi*i»W  the 
plantation. 


FRUITS    FOR   THE    NORTH.  105 


APPENDIX. 


FRUITS  FOR  THE  COLD  NORTH. 


T.  H.  HOSKINS,  M.  !>..  IN  RURAL  NEW  YORKER,  AUGUST  1,  1885. 


The  winter  of  1884-85  was  the  coldest  known  in  Northern  New 
England  fqr  at  least  a  quarter  of  a  century.  The  thermometer 
went  lower,  stayed  low  longer,  and  went  low  oftener  than  in  other 
cold  winters,  and  all  these  things  conjoined  to  produce  a  maxi- 
mum of  ill  effects  upon  our  fruit  trees.  In  addition,  the  snow 
was  slow  in  coming,  the  ground  not  being  permanently  covered 
until  near  Christmas,  so  that  unmulched  trees  suffered  more  or 
k-ss  from  root-killing.  The  only  thing  lacking  to  make  it  the 
worst  of  all  possible  winters  for  orchardists  was  a  violent  alterna- 
tion of  temperatures.  The  winter  was  unbrokenly  cold. 

Such  a  winter  is  by  no  means  an  unmixed  evil.  For  the  ex- 
perimental tree  grower  it  was  a  genuine  test  winter,  enabling  him 
to  form  a  correct  judgment  as  to  the  hardiness  of  his  trees.  With 
between  one  and  two  hundred  species  and  varieties  in  my  grounds, 
I  am  able  to  report  results  which  will  be  useful  to  many  readers 
along  our  northern  border  and  in  the  Dominion. 

The  most  prominent  fact  demonstrated  is  the  general  worth- 
lessness,  "in  the  cold  North,"  of  all  tree  fruits  of  Western  Eu- 
rope. Apples,  pears,  plums  and  cherries  were  alike  destroyed  or 
crippled;  hardly  one,  even  of  those  of  Canada,  escaped.  Never- 
theless, the  efforts  of  our  Canadian  neighbors  have  not  been 
without  their  value,  for  their  seedlings  and  selections  give  us  the 
hardiest  of  the  West  European  stock.  That  there  is  a  vast  dif- 
ference among  them  in  hardiness,  all  with  experience  in  growing 


106  .RON-CLAD    VARIETIES. 

them  will  allow,  though  I  believe  Prof.  Budd  does  not  think  there 
are  any  strictly  "iron-clad"  sorts  among  them.  Some  of  the 
Northeast  European  varieties  have  been  in  this  country  for  half  a 
century,  and  it  may  be  that  among  the  hardiest  sorts  of  New 
England  few,  if  any,  are  free  from  admixture  with  this  strain  or 
race,  or  with  the  Siberian  species,  which  has  been  still  longer  in 
America,  and  is,  in  some  of  its  varieties,  to  be  found  in  almost 
every  orchard.  The  Siberian  is  quite  as  different  in  all  its  lead- 
ing characteristics  from  the  Russian,  as  it  is  from  the  English 
and  French  apples,  while  the  North  German,  Swedish  and  Polish 
tree  fruits  seem  to  be  intermediate  between  those  of  Southwest 
Europe  and  those  of  Russia. 

Of  all  the  apples  in  Northern  New  England  but  one  came 
through  last  winter  unscathed.  This  is  the  Foundling,  a  native 
of  Groton,  Massachusetts.  My  trees  came  from  Canada  under 
the  name  of  Late  Strawberry  of  Montreal,  which  the  Montreal 
horticultural  society  has  decided  to  be  the  Foundling.  The  only 
perfectly  iron-clad  Canadian  apple  is  Pearl  of  Montreal — not  a 
native,  but  imported  from  France,  and  believed  by  Prof.  Budd  to 
be  a  true  Russian.  It  is  a  very  productive,  beautiful  and  deli- 
cious September  dessert  apple,  but  must  be  ripened  on  the  tree 
to  develop  its  quality,  and  is  then  far  too  soft  for  shipment,  being 
defaced  by  even  the  most  gentle  handling.  The  hardiest  native 
Canadian  apple  I  have  is  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  seems  to  be 
nearly  as  hardy  as  Wealthy;  but  it  is  a  very  poor  bearer  here, 
even  on  trees  seventeen  years  planted,  though  on  the  island  of 
Montreal  it  is  quite  productive.  The  Fameuse  is  slig-htly  less 
hardy  than  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Mclntosh  Red  is  certainly 
no  hardier  than  the  Fameuse,  yet  none  of  those  were  fatally  in- 
jured or  worse  hurt  than  the  Baldwin  often  is  in  Maine  and  Mass- 
achusetts. Ben  Davis  and  Clyde  Beauty,  apples  of  New  York 
origin,  and  the  hardiest  I  have  tested  from  that  state,  were  des- 
troyed, as  was  the  excellent  New  York  crab-hybrid  VanWyck 
Sweet.  Of  Maine  apples,  Cole's  Quince  and  Rockwood  are  the 
hardiest  I  have  tried,  and  were  not  hurt  much  more  than  the  Fa- 
meuse. Of  the  natives  of  Southern  and  Western  Vermont, 
Bottle  Greening,  Northern  Sweet  and  Tinmouth  failed  to  stand 
the  cold,  as  did  also  Granite  Beauty  of  New  Hampshire.  The 
only  native  apple  of  Vermont,  outside  of  this  (Orleans)  county, 
that  proves  strictly  iron-clad  is  the  Bethel.  It  is  a  pity  that  this 
fine  apple,  fully  equal  to  the  Baldwin  in  every  other  point,  is  a 
shy  bearer,  especially  when  young.  At  a  size  when  Wealthy 
yields  a  barrel  per  tree,  the  Bethel  gives  scarcely  a  dozen.  Of 
our  Orleans  county  seedlings  the  most  valuable  are  Scott's  Win- 
ter and  Newport  Winter  Sweet,  Magog  Red  Streak  being  super- 
seded by  the  Wealthy.  Newport  Winter  Sweet  is  a  thorough 
iron-clad,  equal  in  all  respects  to  Tolman's  (which  is  not  iron-clad) 
and  much  better  for  eating  uncooked. 

Of  Western  apples,  I  can  report  well  of  Iowa  Russet,  a  fine  apple 


RUSSIAN    APPLES.  107 

receiveu  some  ten  years  since  from  Prof.  Budd,  and  the  only 
Russet  that  passed  through  last'  winter  unharmed.  From  South- 
ern Minnesota,  Giant  Swaar  and  Rollin's  Pippin  (received  from 
A.  W.  Sise,  of  Rochester,  Minn.)  seem  uninjured.  The  Giant 
Swaar  is  a  very  valuable  apple — as  good,  I  think,  in  every  way 
among  the  yellow  apples  as  Wealthy  is  among  the  reds.  I  am 
much  pleased  with  it.  The  Wealthy  was  not  in  every  case  un- 
harmed, though  only  a  few  were  hurt,  and  these  were  trees  which 
had  previously  been  hurt  in  the  trunk  by  "sun  bark  blight,"  i.  e., 
injury  from  the  strong  action  of  the  sun  on  the  southwestern 
side.  The  large  majority  of  my  Wealthys  are  uninjured  and 
bearing  a  good  crop  for  the  off  year.  Wolf  River,  from  Wis- 
consin, shows  itself,  much  to  my  surprise,  to  be  vulnerable,  though 
not  seriously  harmed. 

And  now  for  the  Russians,  which  must,  I  am  sure,  be  the  best, 
if  not  the  only  reliance  for  the  severest  spots.  We  ought  never 
to  have  placed  the  Red  Astrachaii  among  these.  Its  hardiness  is 
below  that  of  Fameuse,  and  about  equal  to  that  of  Tolman's 
Sweet,  Blue  Pearmain  and  Westfield  Seek-no-Further.  None  of 
these  die,  but  all  are  practically  worthless  here.  Astrachan  is 
only  politically  a  part  of  Russia,  with  a  climate  like  that  of 
Southern  New  "York.  There  is  no  other  among  the  more  than 
fifty  Russian  apples  I  have  tested  that  shows  any  defect  in  hardi- 
ness except  Alexander,  which  is  much  hardier  than  Astrachan, 
though  not  ranking  with  Fameuse.  Nevertheless,  I  have  no 
doubt  that  degrees  of  hardiness  under  extreme  exposure  will  be 
found  among  the  Russians,  perhaps  even  here,  but  certainly  in 
Dakota,  Minnesota,  Northern  Wisconsin  and  Michigan,  Manitoba 
and  Canada.  But  for  my  location,  the  question  of  hardiness  is 
eliminated  from  the  consideration,  and  we  are  left  merely  to  se- 
lect our  sorts  among  the  Russians  on  other  considerations!  The 
best  so  far  in  my  orchard,  in  order  of  season,  are  Yellow  Trans- 
parent, Tetot'sky,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  St.  Peter,  Prolific 
Sweeting  and  Golden  White.  These  are  all  summer  and  fall 
kinds.  It  is  not  yet  time  to  determine  in  regard  to  winter  kinds, 
as  we  have  not  had  them  long  enough  to  judge  them  certainly. 
Those  I  have  in  bearing,  Borsdorf  and  Little  Seedling,  though 
good  keepers,  are  too  small. 

The  later  importations,  Antonovka,  Titovka  (suppose  we  call 
them  Antony  and  Titus),  Arabka,  Bogdanoff,  the  Winter  Aports 
and  Anises,  and  the  Longfield,  are  all  apples  of  good  size  and 
quality,  and  from  them  and  others  of  the  same  season,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  good  selections  can  be  made,  which  will  succeed  in 
all  parts  of  America  likely  to  be  inhabited  by  white  men. 

As  regards  other  tree  fruits,  last  winter  wiped  out  all  pears  ex- 
cept the  small  Russians  from  Budd  and  Gibb ;  all  cherries  except 
Lieb,  Large  Montmoreiicy  and  Minnesota  Ostheim  Seedling  of 
Mr.  Myers;  all  plums  except  Arctic  (injured),  and  the  blue  and 
yellow  Orleans  of  Canada,  and  the  Eastern  and  Western  natives, 


108  VALUE    OF   IMPORTED    VARIETIES. 

and  my  only  Russian,  "  Arab,"  from  Prof  Budd.  It  is  evidently 
of  no  use  for  us  to  bother  longer  with  any  of  the  tree  fruits  of 
Western  Europe.  The  work  already  done  by  the  Iowa  agricul- 
tural college,  through  Prof  Budd,  in  bringing  over  the  hardy 
tree  fruits  of  Northwestern  Europe,  propagating  and  distributing 
them,  is  a  full  return  for  all  the  money  expended  in  establishing 
agricultural  colleges  in  this  country. 


NOTES  FROM  THE  AMERICAN  POMOLOGICAL 
SOCIETY. 


The  biennial  reports  issued  by  the  American  Pomological 
society  (of  which  Charles  W.  Garfield  of  Grand  Rapids,  Mich., 
is  the  secretary  at  present,  and  of  which  the  late  Marshall  P. 
Wilder  was  president),  are  among  the  most  valuable  horticul- 
tural publications,  but  not  one  fruit  grower  in  a  thousand  sees 
this  valuable  report.  The  publishers  of  MAYNARD'S  PRACTICAL 
FRUIT  GROWER  have  therefore  thought  wise  to  occupy  the 
remaining  pages  of  this  book  with  a  brief  summary  of  some  of 
the  best  practical  points  from  the  American  Pomological  society's 
report  for  1885. 

We  first  give  a  few  extracts  from  the  annual  address  of  the  late 
President  Wilder  upon  that  occasion. 

WHAT  THE  AMERICAN  POMOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  HAS  ACCOMPLISHED. 

When  we  reflect  on  the  unsettled  and  chaotic  condition  of 
pomology  in  our  country  when  our  society  was  established,  the 
narrow  limits  to  which  fruit  culture  was  confined,  and  the  few 
engaged  in  it,  and  compare  it  with  the  immense  territory  now 
occupied  for  this  purpose,  and  its  importance  as  a  great  industry 
of  our  country,  I  think  it  may  be  well  to  take  a  retrospective 
view  and  see  what  our  society  has  accomplished. 

Its  formation  opened  a  new  era  of  enterprise  in  the  annals  of 
American  pomology,  which  has  no  parallel  in  those  of  other 
lands.  It  was  the  first  great  national  pomological  society,  em- 
bracing in  its  organization  the  largest  area  for  fruit  culture  in 
the  world,  where  almost  every  fruit  of  every  zone  may  be  grown 
in  perfection. 

It  has  brought  into  close  communion  of  interest,  and  concert 
of  action,  the  most  experienced  and  skillful  pomologists  of  our 


WHAT    THE    SOCIETY    HAS    DONE.  109 

country;  and  by  its  proceedings  and  publications  has  furnished 
examples  and  methods  of  work  which  have  been  adopted  by 
other  pomological  and  horticultural  societies,  all  working  har- 
moniously together,  and  thus  has  become  the  acknowledged  pomo- 
logical authority  of  our  land. 

It  is  truly  an  AMERICAN  society,  having,  through  all  the  vicis- 
situdes of  the  past,  held  in  the  bonds  of  friendly  intercourse  for 
the  promotion  of  our  cause,  the  North,  East,  West  and  South, 
and  every  region  where  fruits  can  be  grown  on  this  continent. 

It  has  raised  the  standard  of  excellence  by  which  our  fruits 
are  judged,  discouraged  the  cultivation  of  inferior  sorts,  and  thus 
educated  the  taste  of  the  public  for  those  of  better  quality,  so 
that  kinds  once  common  in  our  markets  have  become  obsolete, 
and  are  now  considered  unworthy  of  propagation.  In  doing  this 
portion  of  its  work,  it  has  discarded  by  general  consent  more 
than  six  hundred  varieties,  either  worthless  or  superseded  by 
better  sort*. 

it  has  established  a  uniform  system  of  rules,  by  which  fruits 
are  to  be  shown  and  judged.  But,  what  is  of  the  highest 
importance,  it  has  instituted  a  much  needed  reform  in  the  nomen- 
clature of  fruits,  by  which  all  long,  unpronounceable,  indelicate, 
inappropriate  and  superfluous  words  are  to  be  suppressed  in  the 
dedication  of  our  fruits. 

One  of  the  grandest  achievements  of  the  society  is  its  catalogue 
of  fruits,  published  biennially,  with  isothermal  divisions  and 
columns  for  fifty  states,  territories  and  districts,  in  which  are 
recorded  the  fruits  which  may  successfully  be  grown  in  those 
divisions,  with  stars  to  designate  the  merits  and  seasons  of  each. 
This  is  a  work  of  great  merit,  and  not  attempted  by  any  other 
society,  and  here  let  me  say,  that  we  should  never  forget  how 
large  a  debt  of  gratitude  we  owe  to  Mr  P.  Barry,  as  chairman  of 
the  general  fruit  committee,  for  its  compilation  and  classification. 
He  has  performed  this  duty  for  a  long  course  of  years;  and  for- 
tunate indeed  is  it  that  we  have,  as  his  successor,  his  son,  Mr  W. 
C.  Barry,  who  has  been  so  well  educated  for  this  duty. 

Few  things  in  the  history  and  progress  of  American  pomology 
have  been  more  effective  in  the  past  and  more  promising  of 
valuable  results  in  the  future  than  our  system  of  state  reports. 
They  embrace  correct  information  from  trustworthy  persons, 
having  special  reference  to  the  varieties  most  successfully  grown; 
new  kinds  worthy  of  special  notice;  the  chief  obstacles  to  suc- 
cessful fruit  culture  in  each  district;  and  correct  information  in 
regard  to  the  extent  and  progress  of  fruit  culture  in  each  section 
of  our  country,  and  are  published  under  the  supervision  of  the 
chairman  of  the  general  fruit  committee  of  our  society,  and  con- 
tain a  vast  fund  of  information  not  elsewhere  to  be  found. 

These  reports  constitute  a  mine  of  pomological  wealth,  and 
contain  not  only  all  the  modifications  and  changes  which  may 
have  been  made  in  collecting  information  concerning  the  culture 


110  POMOLOGY   AS   A   SCIENCE. 

of  fruits,  but  also  in  the  naming  of  them,  and  the  synonyms  by 
which  they  are  known,  the  most  desirable  varieties  being  desig- 
nated in  our  catalogue  by  stars,  according  to  their  several  merits. 

I  cannot  close  my  remarks  on  this  subject  without  expressing 
the  very  great  interest  I  feel  in  continuing  this  most  important 
branch  of  our  researches  through  generations  to  come,  so  that 
for  all  time  we  may  have  a  system  for  the  advancement  of 
pomology  which  shall  be  worthy  of  our  nation  and  the  great 
interests  we  represent.  Had  it  done  nothing  else,  this  alone 
would  entitle  our  society  to  the  universal  approval  which  it  now 
receives,  and  the  gratitude  of  the  generations  which  are  to 
succeed  us. 

Before  the  organization  of  the  society,  while  we  had  around  us 
an  immense  region  ready  for  the  cultivation  of  the  finest  fruits, 
great  confusion  prevailed  in  nomenclature,  and  the  difference  be- 
tween good  and  bad  sorts  was  very  dimly  appreciated.  At  that 
time  pomologists  experienced  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  varie- 
ties true  to  name;  and  sometimes,  after  repeatedly  procuring 
fruits,  and  losing  years  in  waiting  for  them  to  bear>  found  them- 
selves where  they  started.  The  American  Pomological  society 
has  performed  an  immense  labor,  through  its  meetings  and  its 
committees,  in  correcting  this  confusion,  and  it  is  wonderful  to 
contrast  the  early  condition  of  pomology  with  its  present  mature 
state.  Its  future  labor  will  be  continuous  and  of  vital  moment, 
in  introducing  new  and  valuable  varieties;  and  what  will  be  of 
the  greatest  importance,  maintaining  an  accurate  nomenclature. 
It  will  inform  fruit-growers,  in  every  state  and  territory,  what 
fruits  they  are  to  look  to  for  successful  culture.  But  most  im- 
portant of  all,  its  business  will  be  to  give  American  pomology  a 
high  character  as  a  science;  to  prevent  the  appearance  of  mere 
money-making  and  petty  attempts  to  impart  undue  prominence 
to  new  favorites  by  laudatory  names.  The  continued  aim  of  the 
society  will  be  to  maintain  a  position  of  dignity,  integrity  and 
impartial  usefulness. 

RULES   OF   POMOLOGY. 

Nothing  has  afforded  me  more  gratification  than  the  favor 
with  which  our  rules  of  pomology  and  the  reform  in  the  nomen- 
clature of  our  fruits  have  been  received. 

Soon  after  the  close  of  our  last  session,  we  sent  out  a  thousand 
circulars  containing  these  rules,  together  with  the  suggestions 
of  the  president  in  regard  to  the  much  needed  reform  in  the 
nomenclature  of  fruits.  These  were  sent  to  the  agricultural, 
horticultural  and  fruit-growers'  associations  and  to  the  leading 
nurserymen  of  our  country.  Some  were  also  sent  to  foreign 
lands.  The  favor  with  which  these  have  been  received  both  at 
home  and  abroad  has  been  remarkable,  showing  that  the  time 
had  arrived  when,  by  general  consent,  this  reform  should  be 
made ;  and  thus  our  society  has  the  honor  of  instituting  it  as  an 


AVOID   IMPROPER   NAMES.  Ill 

example  for  the  pomological  world.  When  we  reflect  on  the 
long,  senseless  and  sometimes  vulgar  and  ridiculous  names  by 
which  so  many  of  our  most  beautiful  fruits  are  known,  our  in- 
dignation is  so  aroused  that  we  desire  to  blot  them  from  our 
memory  forever.  Some  have  thought  this  spirit  might  be  too 
aggressive.  All  reforms  are  more  or  less  so;  but  when  we  think 
of  the  irrelevant  and  inappropriate  names  by  which  many  of  our 
fruits  are  known,  we  feel  the  importance  of  keeping  up  our  war- 
fare until  the  victory  is  won,  and  all  our  catalogues  are  purged 
of  these  improprieties.  As  I  before  felt,  I  still  feel  it  my  duty, 
as  president  of  the  American  Pomological  society,  to  urge  a 
reform  in  the  names  of  fruits,  avoiding  all  long,  superfluous, 
inappropriate,  indelicate,  ostentatious,  or  unmeaning  titles,  and 
if  we  cannot  change  objectionable  names  already  applied,  at  least 
to  avoid  them  in  the  future.  Hundreds  of  fruits  once  known  in 
our  catalogues  have  become  obsolete  for  want  of  good  properties, 
and  so  it  will  be  in  the  future,  and  we  shall  retain  only  those 
which,  by  their  excellent  quality  and  adaptation  to  our  situation 
and  wants  are  worthy  of  extensive  cultivation.  Like  the  Bald- 
win apple,  the  Bartlett  pear,  the  Concord  grape  and  other 
renowned  fruits,  let  such  varieties  be  dedicated  to  perpetual 
remembrance  by  appropriate  names,  and  thus  let  us  hand  down 
to  future  generations  a  system  of  nomenclature  pure  and  plain 
in  its  diction,  pertinent  and  proper  in  its  application,  and  which 
shall  be  an  example,  not  only  for  fruits,  but  for  other  products 
of  the  earth. 

Let  us  have  no  more  names  of  generals,  colonels,  captains, 
presidents,  governors,  monarchs,  kings  or  princes,  mammoths  or 
Tom  Thumbs,  or  such  titles  as  Nonesuch,  Seek-no-further, 
Ne-plus-ultra,  Hog-pen,  Sheep-nose,  Big  Bob,  Ironclad,  Legal 
Tender,  Sucker  State,  or  Sturnp-the-World.  These  were  sug- 
gestions made  in  my  last  address,  to  which  I  still  adhere  and 
from  which  I  have  nothing  to  take  back.  The  terms  Pearmain, 
Pippin,  Beurre,  Doyenne,  Bon  Chretien,  etc.,  applied  to  apples 
and  pears,  once  described  classes  of  fruit  which  are  now  so  con- 
fused and  blended  that  the  names  have  lost  their  significance. 
The  cases  are  very  few  where  a  single  word  will  not  form 
a  better  name  for  a  fruit  than  two  or  more.  These  reforms 
have  been  adopted  in  the  catalogue  of  the  American  Pomological 
society,  and  other  prominent  horticultural  and  pomological 
societies  have  voted  to  adopt  the  improved  nomenclature,  and  I 
desire  to  ask  the  co-operation  of  all  pomological  and  horticultural 
societies  in  this  and  other  countries  in  carrying  out  this  important 
reform.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  work  might  be  carried 
farther  than  has  been  done  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Pomological 
society,  as,  for  instance,  by  substituting  Lucrative  for  Belle 
Lucrative,  and  Nelis  for  Winter  Nelis.  Pomologists  may  differ 
as  to  how  far  the  reform  should  be  carried,  but  by  comparison  of 
views  they  will  come  to  a  final  agreement. 


112  REVISING   NURSERY    CATALOGUES. 

I  desire  especially  to  enforce  upon  nurserymen  the  duty  of 
aiding  in  this  reform,  by  revising  their  catalogues  so  as  to 
correspond  with  the  improved  nomenclature.  Horticultural 
and  pomological  associations  have  thus  far  been  our  most 
powerful  auxiliaries  in  this  good  work,  but  they  do  not  come 
in  contact  with  the  people  at  so  many  points  as  the  nursery- 
men whose  catalogues  are  distributed  broadcast  over  the  land, 
and  I  would  especially  appeal  to  the  many  honorable  represen- 
tatives of  this  profession  here  assembled,  to  give  us  their  hearty 
co-operation  until  the  work  is  accomplished.  Let  us  push  on 
constantly  and  vigorously  while  we  live,  that  future  generations, 
seeing  its  advantages,  shall  avoid  the  evils  we  have  encountered, 
and  shall  enjoy  the  benefits  of  the  improved  system,  and  look 
ba'ik  with  giatitude  to  us  for  our  labors. 

PRODUCTION    OF   NEW    FRUITS. 

And  now  iii  fulfillment  of  my  promise  to  urge  upon  you  while 
I  live  the  importance  of  producing  from  seed  new  improved 
varieties  of  fruits,  adapted  to  the  various  soils  and  climates  of 
our  vast  territory,  I  have  substantially  to  repeat  what  I  have 
said  in  my  former  addresses.  These  are  the  means,  and  the 
only  means,  which  God  and  nature  have  provided  for  the  im- 
provement of  our  fruits,  and  the  better  we  understand  and  prac- 
tice them  the  nearer  shall  we  approach  to  that  divine  beneficence 
which  gives  flavor  and  richness  to  our  fruits,  and  to  the  senses 
the  highest  types  of  beauty,  grace  and  gratification. 

Thus  from  time  to  time  I  have  spoken  to  you,  and,  were  these 
my  last  words,  I  would  again  impress  them  upon  you  as  of  the 
utmost  importance.  With  a  careful  study  of  the  tendencies  of 
varieties,  and  a  judicious  selection  of  parents,  as  breeders,  we 
shall  go  on  to  produce  fruits  which  will  be  adapted  to  every 
climate  or  condition  of  our  land  where  any  species  of  fruit  may 
be  grown.  When  we  see  what  nature  has  done  withput  the  aid 
of  manipulation — in  the  cold  regions  of  the  North,  as  in  Russia, 
from  whence  came  the  Oldenburg  and  Tetofsky  apples,  the 
Black  Tartarian  cherry,  and  other  good  fruits,  as  seen  by  Pro- 
fessor Budd  and  Mr  Charles  Gibb,  who  can  doubt  our  ability  to 
produce  fiue  fruits  even  in  the  colder  regions  of  our  country? 

When  we  consider  that  the  art  of  crossing  varieties  for  their 
improvement  was  scarcely  known  until  our  day,  and  see  what 
wonders  have  been  accomplished  by  it,  who  can  doubt  that  we 
may  yet  produce  a  pear  with  the  richness  of  the  Seckel,  the 
form  and  size  of  the  Bose,  and  the  vigor  and  productiveness  of 
the  Boussock?  And  so  we  may  go  on  to  improve  other  fruits, 
until  all  shall  be  made  as  perfect  as  ever  were  grown  by  "  the 
grand  old  gardener  "  in, Eden.  But  to  do  this  we  must  study  the 
characteristics  of  varieties  and  thus  help  nature  to  perfect  this 
work. 


NOTES    FROM    OTHER   MEMBERS.  113 

GRAPE  MILDEW. — Prof  C.  V.  Riley,  entomologist  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  summarizing  his  paper,  said:  We  thus 
have,  indigenous  to  this  country,  two  mildews  that  are  more  par- 
ticularly destructive  to  the  grape-vine : 

The  Uncinula,  or  the  Powdery  Mildew,  flourishing  most  in  a 
dry  atmosphere,  not  particularly  destructive  to  our  hardier 
native  grapes,  and  easily  controlled  by  the  use  of  sulphur.  It 
develops  chiefly  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  and  produces 
simple  ovoid  summer  spores  and  more  complex  and  ciliate  winter 
spores,  which  are  found  upon  both  the  leaf  and  the  cane.  Intro- 
duced into  Europe  many  years  ago,  it  is  only  known  there  in  the 
conidial  as  Oidium  tuckeri,  and  works  more  injury  than  it  does 
with  us. 

The  Peronospora,  or  the  Downy  Grape-vine  Mildew,  which 
ramifies  its  mycelium  in  the  substance  of  the  leaf  and  even  of 
the  fruit,  and  develops  most  in  moist  or  wet  weather.  It  pro- 
duces its  summer  spores  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  and  a 
winter  spore  in  the  tissues  of  the  dry  and  fallen  leaves.  It  is 
not  amenable  to  sulphur  but  is  checked  by  a  diluted  kerosene 
emulsion  in  which  a  small  amount  of  carbolic  acid  is  mixed,  but 
far  more  effectually  checked,  and  even  prevented,  by  a  mixture 
of  slacked  lime  and  sulphate  of  copper.  This  should  be  applied 
early  in  the  season,  say  in  June,  so  as  to  act  as  a  preventive; 
while  the  gathering  and  burning  of  the  old  leaves  in  winter  time 
will  assist.  This  species  is  more  injurious  with  us  than  the  other 
and  is  especially  troublesome  on  the  European  vines.  It  was 
first  introduced  into  Europe  in  1877,  when  it  was  found  in  Hun- 
gary, and  has  since  spread  through  the  greater  portion  of  France, 
Italy,  Switzerland,  Austria,  etc. 

NOMENCLATURE  or  FRUITS. — President  T.  T.  Lyon  of  the 
Michigan  Horticultural  society  said:  What  classes  of  names  are 
to  be  preferred  for  fruits  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  an  open 
question.  We  esteem  brevity  as  always  and  everywhere  desirable. 
The  name  of  the  originator  or  introducer  will  rarely  be  found 
inappropriate;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  name  of  the  place  of 
origin,  while  either  will  generally  possess  the  advantage  of 
requiring  but  a  single  word;  while  the  wish  to  add  a  character- 
izing word  but  too  commonly  finds  expression  in  the  use  of  such 
titles  as  Pippin,  Pearmain,  Superb,  Favorite,  or  Beauty,  or  of 
political  or  military  designations,  designed  to  convey  the  impres- 
sion of  superiority,  but  which  have  been  heretofore  so  loosely 
employed,  that  they  have,  to  persons  of  experience,  at  least,  long 
since  ceased  to  convey  the  impression  intended.  VV^e  cannot  ton 
strongly  insist,  that  more  than  a  single  word  will  rarely  be  found 
needful;  and  that,  if  characterizing  words  be  employed,  the 
strictest  honesty  in  their  use  be  rigidly  adhered  to.  If  (as 
we  infer  should  be  the  case)  it  be  the  purpose  of  the  society  to 
adhere  strictly  to  its  rule  respecting  objectionable  names,  it 

8 


114  KNOWLEDGE   IN   FRUIT   GROWING. 

would  seem  necessary  that,  upon  the  presentation  of  a  new  or 
newly  named  fruit  for  consideration,  its  name  be,  in  all  cases, 
first  considered;  and  that,  if  objected  to,  such  objection  be  sus- 
tained, the  fruit  in  question  be  designated  by  the  name  of  the 
originator  or  introducer,  or  that  of  its  locality,  pending  the 
designation  of  a  satisfactory  name  by  the  proper  person. 

Mr  J.  J.  Thomas  of  Union  Springs,  New  York,  on  the  same 
topic  writes:  There  are  two  great  foundation  principles  in 
nomenclature:  to  insist  on  compact,  expressive  and  appropriate 
names;  and  to  give  to  pomology  the  truth  and  dignity  of  a 
science,  and  to  prevent  it  from  becoming  degraded  into  peddler's 
puffing.  A  name  may  designate  the  locality  of  origin,  name  of 
the  originator  or  of  an  eminent  pomologist  (not  of  a  politician 
or  warrior)  and  still  better  an  indication  of  its  appearance  or 
other  characteristic.  It  should  not  be  somebody's  "Prolific"  or 
"Giant,"  or  "Favorite;"  not  a  superlative,  bombastic,  frothy  or 
strained  name.  For  strawberries,  such  names  as  Crimson  Cone, 
Necked  Pine  and  Red  Alpine,  are  much  better  than  Wizard  of 
the  North,  Great  American,  Defiance,  Mammoth,  Monarch  of 
the  West,  etc.  Golden  Cap  Raspberry  is  to  be  preferred  to  Pride 
of  the  Hudson;  Nivette  and  Lemon  Cling  are  better  than  Ad- 
mirable, Incomparable,  Royal  George,  or  Stump  the  World. 

KNOWLEDGE. — Mr  E.  Williams,  secretary  of  the  New  Jersey 
Horticultural  society,  said:  In  the  production  of  true  varieties 
from  seed,  propagators  have  learned  much;  they  have  learned  to 
trust  more  in  means;  we  can't  expect  to  get  size  by  combining 
two  large  varieties.  To  obtain  any  given  improvement,  one  of 
the  varieties  should  have  that  feature  as  marked  as  possible,  and 
the  other  should  simply  be  a  strong,  well-established  variety, 
without  any  such  special  feature.  Again,  I  think  we  have  much 
to  learn  with  regard  to  the  use  of  special  fertilizers  in  the  im- 
provement of  varieties.  We  also  need  to  learn  the  particular 
needs  of  special  varieties.  The  same  treatment  will  not  answer 
for  different  varieties.  Different  types  of  varieties  require 
different  treatment,  For  example,  the  Great  American.  I  cannot 
grow  it;  can  hardly  keep  the  plant  alive,  while  a  man  not  far 
from  me  grows  it  by  the  acre.  He  has  them  in  wide,  matted 
rows,  and  has  raised,  I  believe,  the  largest  strawberry  crop  that 
ever  grew.  He  has  sold  us  high  as  $1700  worth  from  an  acre. 
We  have  to  study  our  soils,  the  special  climates  and  varieties. 

ECONOMIC  ENTOMOLOGY. — Prof  A.  J.  Cook  of  the  Michigan 
Agricultural  College  said  in  the  course  of  his  address:  Not  long 
ago  a  horticultural  writer  of  considerable  prominence  urged,  in 
one  of  our  leading  agricultural  journals,  that  all  wild  trees  and 
shrubs  be  carefully  excluded  from  the  vicinity  of  our  orchards. 
It  was  argued  that  the  presence  of  such  vegetation  would  at- 
tract these  insect  enemies,  and  so  bring  added  danger  from 
their  ravages.  From  what  has  been  shown  above,  this  seems  a 
wrong  conclusion.  Facts  show  conclusively  that  the  removing, 


A   HOME-MADE   EVAPORATOR.  115 

not  the  planting  of  these  wild  and  uncultivated  plants  is  what 
has  augmented  the  evil  in  our  midst.  With  plenty  of  wild 
cherry  trees  about  the  orchard,  the  trees  in  the  orchard  will 
suffer  almost  none  at  all  from  the  tent  caterpillars  in  a  few  wild 
cherry  trees,  than  when  they  are  scattered  wide  through  a  whole 
orchard.  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  same  is  true  of  the 
apple  tree  borers,  and  the  apple  maggot.  If  we  have  the  wild 
haw  and  wild  crab  in  goodly  numbers  near  by,  the  apple  trees 
and  their  fruit  will  suffer  less;  often  none  at  all.  I  believe,  then, 
that  reasoning  from  the  insect  side  of  the  question,  we  may 
better  plant  than  to  up-root  or  cut  down  these  wild  plants  and 
trees. 


VALUABLE  HINTS  AND  EXPERIENCE. 


A  HOME-MADE  EVAPORATOR. — I  secured  a  box  two  feet  long, 
18  inches  deep  and  two  feet  high.  The  cover  was  missing,  so  i 
inverted  it,  making  the  bottom  answer  for  a  top.  I  removed  one 
side,  cleating  the  pieces  together  near  each  end,  and  put  leather 
hinges  on,  fastening  it  to  the  former  bottom,  but  now  the  top  of 
the  concern.  At  the  loose  corners,  I  nailed  in  an  inch-square 
strip  to  hold  them  firm.  Inside,  on  each  of  the  ends,  I  nailed 
half-inch  strips,  two  inches  apart,  as  slides  for  the  trays  to  run 
upon.  The  trays  were  made  of  strips  of  half-inch  stuff,  one 
inch  wide,  halved  in  at  the  corners  and  braced  by  diagonal  wires. 
They  are  covered  with  white  mosquito-netting.  At  the  top  and 
side  furthest  from  the  door  hinges,  I  removed  a  piece  of  the 
top  two  inches  wide.  I  then  made  a  chimney  two  inches  wide, 
two  feet  long  and  a  foot  high,  which  I  placed  over  the  opening 
and  nailed  fast.  After  supper,  when  the  evenings  are  long,  we  all 
set  to  work  at  the  apples,  and  putting  a  few  pieces  of  wood  in 
the  stove,  begin  filling  the  trays,  the  lowest  first.  As  the  second 
tray  is  prepared,  the  tirst  one  is  moved  up  and  the  new  one  put 
in  next  to  the  fire,  until  the  evaporator  is  full.  The  evaporator 
is  placed  on  four  pieces  of  brick,  stood  edge-wise  on  the  stove  at 
the  corners  of  the  machine.  The  apples  dry  off  the  first  evening 
to  some  extent,  and  when  the  work  is  done  up  the  following  day 
the  evaporator  may  be  lifted  on  again,  and  by  evening  the  fruit 
is  ready  to  put  away.  My  method  of  cutting  apples  is  to  peel, 
and  take  off  two  slices  from  each  end,  then  core,  and  slice  the 


116 


CAUSE    OF   PEAR   BLIGHT. 


remainder  to  a  thickness  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  The  trays 
should  be  made  one  or  two  inches  narrower  than  the  box  and 
ai  ranged  so  that  the  hot  air  is  driven  from  front  to  rear  and  back 


m 


again  as  in  the  sketch,  which  gives  a  sectional  view  of  the 
evaporator.  The  door  is  hung  at  the  top  as  shown,  but  should  be 
kept  closed  except  when  putting  in  or  removing  trays. — [R. 
Ferris,  Essex  county,  N.  Y. 

THE  CAUSE  OF  PEAR  BLIGHT. — Col  Leighton  of  Virginia 
claims  that  pear  blight  is  caused  simply  and  wholly  by  sudden 
changes  of  temperature.  He  says,  "In  the  early  part  of  May 
when  the  sap  is  ascending  briskly,  and  cool  nights  have  occurred 
with  warm  days,  and  when  the  difference  of  temperature  within 
the  24  hours  is  about  30  degrees,  twig  blight  appears  from  eight 
to  ten  days  thereafter."  He  feels  so  sure  that  a  sufficient  varia- 
tion of  temperature  at  this  season  of  the  year  brings  on  blight, 
that  he  has  no  hesitancy  in  predicting  the  disease  by  the  aid  of 
the  thermometer,  and  the  disease  actually  did  appear  on  May  20, 
1887,  as  he  prophesied  on  May  12. 

But  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  where  I  was  then  located,  the  thermom- 
eter showed  a  variation  of  20  degrees  between  night  and  day  ten 


TO    SAVE    GIRDLED    TREES.  .117 

times  in  April  aud  May,  so  that  if  pear  blight  was  caused  by- 
such  sudden  changes  in  temperature  it  certainly  should  have 
appeared  at  Geneva,  whereas  it  did  not  occur  at  all.  Col  Leigh- 
ten  seat  me  some  twigs  from  his  trees  "to  show  that  bacteria  had 
no  part  in  the  matter."  Some  of  the  diseased  parts  were  cut  up 
into  a  small  amount  of  water;  as  usual  when  freshly  blighted 
twigs  are  taken,  the  water  was  made  milky  with  the  abundance 
of  bacteria,  as  verified  under  the  microscope.  A  drop  of  this 
bacteria-laden  water  was  applied  to  punctures  made  with  a  pin  in 
several  twigs  and  fruits  of  a  healthy  pear  tree  in  the  garden. 
After  a  lapse  of  six  days  the  disease  appeared  in  each  instance  in 
its  usual  characteristic  form.  Samples  were  sent  to  Col 
Leighton  with  directions  by  which  he  might  tranfer  the  disease 
from  these  twigs  through  a  drop  of  water,  to  his  own  trees  again, 
and  also  with  directions  for  observing  the  bacteria  under  the 
microscope.  No  answer  has  yet  been  received  to  this  communi- 
cation. The  production  of  the  disease  by  inoculation  took  place 
the  latter  part  of  May,  and  with  no  other  cases  of  the  disease  in 
the  vicinity. 

The  true  explanation  rf  the  relation  of  temperature  to  blight, 
as  observed  by  Col  Leighton,  is  doubtless  this:  The  germs 
cften  enter  the  tree  through  the  flowers  or  through  the  young 
expanding  leaf  buds.  At  this  time  of  year  it  is  frequently  too 
cool  for  the  germs  to  multiply  rapidly  enough  to  make  the  dis- 
ease at  once  conspicuous.  If,  however,  a  few  days  of  specially 
warm  weather  occur  shortly  after  the  flowers  open,  the  germs  are 
incited  to  active  growth  and  the  disease  speedily  becomes  ap- 
parent.— [Prof  J.  C.  Arthur,  Purdue  University,  La  Fayette,  Ind. 

How  TO  SAVE  GIRDLED  TREES. — Trees  that  have  been  girdled 
by  mice  or  rabbits  may  sometimes  be  saved  by  making  a  mound 
of  earth  six  inches  or  more  thick  over  the  injured  part  and  press- 
ing it  very  firmly  to  prevent  the  wood  from  becoming  dry  and 
cracking.  Sometimes  painting  over  the  wound  with  linseed  oil 
paint  or  thin  grafting  wax  will  save  them  if  it  is  done  before  the 
bark  and  wood  get  dry.  After  the  injured  part  has  become 
thoroughly  dry  and  the  trunk  begins  to  crack,  the  above  will  be 
of  little  service  if  the  tree  is  completely  girdled.  Any  tree  that 
has  not  become  dry  to  the  center  may  be  saved,  however,  by  the 
method  herewith  illustrated. 

With  a  short,  thin-bladed  chisel,  a  cut  is  made  below  and  above 
the  injured  part  as  in  Fig.  1,  about  the  time  the  buds  begin  to 
swell.  Cions  are  then  fitted  as  in  Fig.  3,  about  two  inches  longer 
than  the  space  between  the  cuts.  The  lower  end  is  inserted  m 
the  cut  and  firmly  pressed  into  place.  Then  bend  the  cion  and 
press  the  upper  end  into  the  upper  cut.  The  number  of  cions 
will  vary  from  two  to  six  according  to  the  size  of  the  tree.  After 
the  cions  have  been  inserted,  the  cuts  should  be  covered  with 
wax,  a  strong  band  of  cloth  or  bast  fiber  should  be  tied  over  the 
the  ends  to  press  them  firmly  in  place,  and  the  whole  covered 


118*  TO   PREVENT   GIRDLING. 

with  grafting  wax  or  waxed  cloth.  To  prevent  the  wax  from 
melting  and  running,  a  cloth  may  be  put  around  as  in  Fig.  2.  If 
the  covering  be  removed  in  August,  as  it  should  be,  the  union 
of  the  cions  will  be  found  complete, 
and  in  a  few  years  will  grow  together 
and  a  new  outside  trunk  be  formed. 
[Prof  S.  T.  Maynard,  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural College. 


a 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig. 


119 


THE  NEWER  FRUITS, 

As  discussed  by  the  American  Pomological  society  at  its  meet- 
ing in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  September,  1887  : 

Apples. 

Yellow  Transparent — Dr  Hoskins  of  Vermont:  It  was  first 
disseminated  by  the  agricultural  department  in  1869-70.  In  his 
severe  climate  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Memphremagog  it  is  en- 
tirely hardy.  It  began  to  bear  four  years  from  planting.  It 
ripens  in  August,  is  good  for  shipping,  and,  unlike  some  of  the 
Russians,  is  not  subject  to  bark  blight.  Mr  Lyon  of  Michigan 
said:  It  is  a  thrifty  grower,  hardy;  several  varieties  are  culti- 
vated in  the  West  under  this  name.  Mr  Lovett  of  New  Jersey 
had  fruited  it,  but  it  often  bears  too  heavily,  causing  the  fruit  to 
be  small.  J.  M.  Smith  of  Wisconsin  calls  it  very  promising. 
Mr  Minch  of  New  Jersey  said  it  was  the  best  of  all  in  its  class 
in  all  respects. 

Delaware  Winter — Mr  Meyer  of  Delaware  claims  this  variety 
to  be  identical  with  Lauver,  but  Mr  Lovett  held  that  it  was  a 
different  variety.  Mr  Van  Deman  of  Kansas,  United  States 
pomologist,  was  inclined  to  think  it  different. 

Wealthy — Mr  Paul  said  it  was  a  vigorous,  hardy  and  produc- 
tive variety  on  the  highlands  of  Western  Massachusetts,  keeps 
well  and  is  one  of  the  best.  Dr  Hoskins  had  grown  it  15  years, 
raising  some  seasons  1000  bushels ;  it  had  better  be  top- worked  in 
cold  latitudes.  Mr  Lyou  had  observed  it  much  in  the  Northwest, 
and  found  it  liable  to  summer  blight.  Mr  Hatch  of  Wisconsin 
topgrafts  it;  none  other  is  so  successful  with  him.  Mr  Thurber 
of  Essex  county  would  not  recommend  it  for  Massachusetts,  but 
Mr  Marvin  found  it  very  successful  in  New  York,  and  hardier 
than  Duchess  of  Oldenburg.  Mr  Gibb  of  Ontario  regarded  it  as 
nearly  all  that  could  be  desired,  its  only  weak  point  being  that  it 
drops  somewhat  before  ripe. 

McMahon's  White — Mr  Hatch  of  Winconsin  reports  that  this 
variety  has  the  best  of  records  in  the  West  for  hardiness,  having 
stood  40°  below  zero,  and  has  survived  the  cold  better  than  the 
Russians.  On  extremely  rich  soils  it  is  subject  to  blight;  it  is  a 
fall  apple.  With  Dr  Hoskius  of  Vermont  it  is  hardy. 

Wallace  Howard — Mr  Berkmaus  regarded  it  as  one  of  the 
finest  apples  cultivated  in  the  South.  Mr  Minch  of  New  Jersey 
said  it  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  apples,  and  Dr  Keary  of 
Georgia  considered  it  one  of  the  best. 

Wolf  River — Dr  Hoskins  found  it  not  hardy.  Mr  Hatch  said 
it  was  not  so  hardy  in  Wisconsin  as  some  of  the  old  varieties. 


120  NEW    APPLES    AND    PEARS. 

Mr  Lyon  held  that  it  was  identical  with  Alexander,  but  Mr  Wat- 
rous  of  Iowa  said  it  was  entirely  unlike  Alexander  with  him,  and 
it  is  not  hardy. 

Fanny  Apple — Mr  Green  of  New  York  had  received  it  from 
Charles  Downing,  who  recommended  it  as  superior  to  the  Red 
Astrachan.  Mr  Eagle  of  Pennsylvania  found  it  good  later  than 
the  Red  Astrachan,  a  dark  red  and  showy. 

Scott's  Winter  is  under  size,  but  a  very  successful  apple  in  On- 
tario according  to  Mr  Gibb.  Dr  Hoskiiis  reported  it  as  a  great 
keeper,  often  being  well  preserved  until  Yellow  Transparent 
ripens. 

Shaw — This  is  a  chance  seedling  found  in  a  rough  pasture  by 
Mr  C.  C.  Shaw  of  Milford,  N.  H.  It  has  been  frequently  ex- 
hibited at  the  fairs  by  Mr  Shaw;  and  is  described  by  him  as  fol- 
lows: Season,  September,  ripening  with  Gravenstein;  sub-acid; 
tree  grows  like  the  Baldwin;  fruit  grows  on  the  tree  similar  to 
Northern  Spy. 

Salome  was  exhibited  at  the  world's  exposition  at  New  Orleans. 
It  is  only  ordinary  in  quality  but  hardy  according  to  Mr  Lyon, 
though  Mr  Hape  put  it  still  lower  and  pronounced  it  insipid. 

Northwestern  Greening  is  not  of  high  quality,  says  Mr  Van 
Deman;  Mr  Watrous,  not  hardy. 

.Jacob's  Sweet — In  the  opinion  of  Mr  Thurlow,  this  promises 
to  be  one  of  the  best  winter  apples  in  Massachusetts;  Mr  Man- 
ning agreed  that  it  was  very  promising.  Mr  Lovett  said  it  was 
large,  handsome  and  sweet,  and  a  fine  grower. 

Pears. 

Comet — Mr  Lyon  saw  them  at  the  society's  meeting  two  years 
ago,  where  they  were  poor  and  insipid. 

Keiffer — Mr  Bourne  pronounced  them  poor  in  Rhode  Island; 
Mr  Fuller  of  New  Jersey,  soft,  melting,  a  fine  pear.  Mr  Engle 
of  Pennsylvania,  very  poor;  Mr  Paul  of  Massachusetts,  grafting 
them  over;  Mr  Berkmans,  suited  to  some  sections  and  good  for 
the  South.  Mr  Lovett  said  it  was  not  of  high  quality,  makes  a 
poor  stock,  does  not  unite  readily  with  stock,  and  is  much  like 
the  quince  in  this  particular;  Mr  Van  Deman,  in  the  South  it  is 
fine,  but  in  '.he  North  it  is  poor.  Mr  Augur  of  Connecticut  has 
50  trees,  great  bearers,  to  some  tastes  good,  and  is  valuable  for 
cooking. 

Le  Conte — Mr  Berkmans  said  that  like  the  Keiffer  it  succeeds 
well  at  the  South  when  properly  managed,  and  ripens  very 
good;  Northern  members  should  not  be  too  hasty  in  condemning 
it,  as  it  is  good  for  Southern  cultivators.  Mr  Coe  reported  that 
it  grows  well  in  Central  Connecticut,  and  is  better  than  Keiffer, 
but  rots  at  the  core.  Dr  Carey  said  that  the  growth  was  remark- 
able in  Southwestern  Georgia.  Mr  Brackett  of  Iowa  had  grown 
shoots  12  feet  long  in  one  season. 


CHERRIES — WHY    PEARS    CRACK. 


121 


Pratt — Mr  Manning  found  it  of  the  finest  quality  with  him,  m 
Eastern  Massachusetts. 

Russian  Pears — Mr  Gibb  of  Ontario,  the  best  authority  on 
Russian  fruits,  said  that  Bessemianka  was  the  best  of  those  pears 
so  far  tested.  They  must  be  further  tested  before  coming 
to  any  definite  or  satisfactory  conclusions.  One  with  the  short 
and  simple  name  of  Lapieganka  was  very  promising.  Mr  Wat- 
rous  of  Iowa  had  tested  30  varieties,  and  Bessemianka  was  the 
only  hardy  one  with  him.  In  Vermont  the  Bessemianka  is  quite 
as  hardy  as  the  Wealthy  apple,  said  Dr  Hoskins.  Mr  Brackett 
of  Iowa  thought  they  were  not  so  well  tested  as  they  should  be, 
and  should  have  further  trial. 

Hoosac — This  variety  originated  with  Mr  Foot  of  North 
Adams,  Mass.,  and  h  an  excellent  pear,  said  Mr  Paul.  J.  T. 
Lovett  considered  it  fine  in  New  Jersey,  and  Mr  Barry  of  New 
York  said  it  was  good. 

Wilder — Mr  Green  reported  it  as  fine,  not  inclined  to  rot  at 
the  core,  and  with  him  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  is  a  vigorous  grower. 

Cherries. 

Russian — Mr  Watrous  of  Iowa  had  tested  many  of  them  and 
some  are  hardy.  They  are  hardy  with  Dr  Hoskins  of  Vermont. 
Windsor — Mr  Barry  of  New  York  pronounced  it  very  good  and 
worthy  of  culture.  Wragg — Mr  Watrous  found  it  identical 
with  the  English  Morello,  but  it  is  supposed  by  Prof  Budd  to  be 
of  Russian  origin. 

The  Kelsey  plum  will  not  succeed  north  of  New  Jersey,  said 
President  Berkmans,  and  Mr  Lovett  reported  that  the  young 
trees  were  not  hardy  in  New  Jersey. 

Prunus  Simoni — Mr  Watrous  of  Iowa  said  it  was  not  hardy, 
the  trees  were  all  dead.  Mr  Barry  reported  being  stung  so 
badly  by  curculio  that  it  is  worthless.  It  was  promising  in 
Georgia;  Mr  Thurlow  should  not  recommend  it  for  the  North. 
The  Marianna  plum,  promising  in  Georgia  and  similar  latitudes, 
freezes  to  the  ground  in  Iowa.  Robinson  is  a  fine  Southern  plum. 

WHY    PEARS   CRACK. 

It  is  now  generally  understood  that  the  cracking  of  pears  is 
connected  with  their  scabbing,  both  being  due  to  the  attack 
of  the  fungus,  Fusicladium.  This  fungus  develops  in  and  upon 
the  skin  of  the  fruit,  forming  brown  patches  and  retarding 
the  growth.  It  rarely  covers  the  whole  fruit,  and  does  not 
penetrate  deeply;  and  as  the  growth  is  only  checked  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  fungus,  an  uneven  tension  of 
the  tissues  is  brought  about,  which  may  become  great  enough 
to  split  the  pear  into  cracks  of  variable  depth.  The  reason 
why  some  varieties  are  more  subject  to  attack  than  others 
is  yet  to  a  considerable  extent  a  matter  of  opinion.  The  two 
main  elements  which  determine  its  abundance  in  any  season 


122  PROTECTION    AGAINST    MICE. 

are  doubtless  the  weather  and  the  amount  of  the  fungus  the 
preceding  year.  The  enriching  of  the  soil  and  cultivation 
are  not  known  to  have  any  marked  eifect  in  either  accel- 
erating or  retarding  its  advent.  The  only  practicable  means  yet 
devised  for  preventing  it  is  to  spray  the  trees  a  number  of  times 
while  the  fruit  is  growing  with  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda  (1  Ib  to  10  gals  of  water)  or  sulphide  of  potassium  (5  oz  to 
10  gals  of  water),  preferably  the  latter.  Not  enough  trials  have 
yet  been  made  with  these  fungicides,  however,  to  make  it  possible 
to  give  explicit  directions  for  their  use,  or  to  state  definitely  the 
results  to  be  expected. — [Dr  J.  C.  Arthur,  Purdue  University,  La 
Fayette,  Ind. 

PROTECTION    AGAINST    MICE   AND    RABBITS. 

As  a  protection  of  fruit  trees  from  mice,  some  of  our  good 
fruit  tree  growers  find  a  perfect  remedy  by  wrapping  a  piece  of 
stiff  tarred  paper  8  or  10  inches  wide  around  the  bottom  of  the 
tree.  Probably  a  wider  strip  would  prevent  the  gnawing  from 
rabbits  as  well. — [Royal  Stone,  Otsego  county,  Mich. 

Field  mice  will  work  very  badly  in  orchards  when  there  is  a 
great  depth  of  snow.  The  snow  should  be  trodden  down  about 
the  trees  the  first  time  it  is  damp  enough  to  do  so,  especially 
in  runs  where  it  drifts,  as  trees  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  collar  are  often  completely  girdled  in  such  situations. 

To  protect  trees  against  mice,  rabbits  or  sheep,  paint  the  trunk 
above  their  reach  with  a  cold  wash  made  by  mixing  one  peck  of 
unslacked  lime  with  4  Ibs  of  sulphur  slacked  in  8  qts  of  boiling 
water,  and  while  still  hot  add  half  a  gallon  of  crude  carbolic 
acid  and  the  same  of  gas  tar,  stirring  well  and  mixing  thoroughly. 
A  flat  brush  is  the  best  thing  to  put  it  on  with. — [Jacob  Faith, 
Montevallo,  Mo. 

My  plan  for  protecting  trees  from  mice  in  winter  has  been  to 
tie  up  the  trunks  of  our  trees  with  laths  or  other  strips  of  thin 
wood.  This  has  always  proved  entirely  satisfactory,  and  is  cheap; 
for  after  the  strips  are  once  applied,  they  do  not  need  to  be  re- 
moved for  many  years,  except  little  additions  of  new  strips  as 
the  trees  grow,  and  the  work  is  practically  limited  to  tying  a 
fresh  string  around  them  every  fall, — [Dr  Hoskins  in  Rural  Ver- 
monter. 

A  writer  in  the  Revue  Horticole  gives  the  following  remedy 
for  preventing  the  depredations  of  rabbits  in  his  garden:  He 
mixes  3  Ibs  of  blue  vitriol  with  4  Ibs  of  fresh  slaked  lime  and 
adds  the  mixture  to  18  gallons  of  water.  The  blue  vitriol  is  first 
dissolved  in  two  or  chree  gallons  of  water,  and  then  both  are 
thrown  into  a  barrel  and  the  water  added  to  make  18  gallons. 
The  mixture  is  applied  with  a  whitewash  brush,  in  dry  weather 
only,  to  the  trunks  of  the  trees  from  the  ground  to  a  hight  of  a 
foot  or  two. 


PROTECTION    AGAINST    MICE.  123 

The  Prairie  Farmer  gives  A.  R.  Whitney's  remedy  for  mice, 
moles  and  rabbits,  consisting  of  lime,  copperas  and  glue.  Fresh 
lime  is  slacked,  and  enough  water  is  added  to  make  it  into 
moderately  thick  whitewash.  Dissolve  two  pounds  of  glue  in 
water  and  add  a  dissolved  pound  of  copperas,  and  stir  the  whole 
together.  This  mixture  is  applied  with  a  whitewash  brush  to  the 
trunks  of  the  trees  late  in  autumn.  This  is  similar  to  Prof  May- 
nard's  remedy  as  above,  but  he  uses  half  a  pound  of  paris  green 
to  8  qts  of  water;  carbolic  acid  is  used  if  danger  of  poisoning 
animals  is  feared. 

To  overcome  these  greatest  of  pests  I  propose  the  following, 
which  I  am  confident  will  work  satisfactorily  and  be  compara- 
tively safe :  In  October  or  November,  paint  the  trunks  up  to  (if 
necessary  among)  the  main  branches  with  limewash  and  glue,  in 
which  is  mixed  half  a  pound  of  paris  green  to  each  pailful 
of  eight  quarts.  To  prepare  this  paint,  slake  the  lime,  using 
only  water  enough  to  make  a  thick  paste;  then  when  ready  to 
apply,  thin  with  a  solution  of  common  glue  to  the  proper  thick- 
ness to  apply  readily  with  a  common  paint  brush.  If  there 
should  be  any  danger  from  domestic  animals  getting  at  the  paint, 
the  paris  green  might  be  replaced  by  carbolic  acid.  Perhaps  the 
use  of  tar- water  for  slaking  the  lime  would  give  the  paint  such 
an  offensive  taste  and  odor  as  to  prevent  the  trees  being  attacked. 
Ordinary  limewash  would  not  adhere  to  the  bark  long  enough, 
but  the  use  of  a  little  glue  would  certainly  cause  it  to  adhere 
until  spring. —  [Prof  S.  T.  Maynard,  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
College. 


124 


ICE-HOUSE  AND   COLD  BOOMS. 


This  ice-house  has  been  well  tested,  having  preserved  its  store 

of  ice  for  two  years  at  a 
time.  Having  been  erected 
for  the  use  of  a  public 
building,  its  size  is  per- 
haps greater  than  would 
be  necessary  on  an  ordi- 
nary farm,  but  its  dimen- 
sions may  be  altered  to 
suit  circumstances  if  the 
proportion  of  the  different 
parts  be  very  nearly  ad- 
hered to. 

The  ice  room  is  16  by 
16  feet  and  12  feet  high 
in  the  clear.  The  cold 
room  under  the  ice  room 
is  of  the  same  size  as  the 
latter  on  the  floor,  and  7 
feet  6  inches  high  in 
the  clear.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  cold  room  below,  there  are  two  apartments  or  pas- 
sages surrounding  the  ice  room  which  serve  the  two-fold  purpose 
of  preserving  the  ice  from  the  exterior  heated  air,  and  giving 
additional  room  for  cold  storage.  The  width  of  these  inclosing 
passages  is  4  feet,  and  their  bights  are  8  feet  and  9  feet  6  inches 
respectively.  They  are  sufficiently  wide  for  a  series  of  shelves 
tipon  one  side  of  each  throughout,  which  gives  a  very  useful  ex- 
tent of  shelving  room. 

The  entrance  to  these  apartments  is  by  the  door.  The  ice  is 
received  at  a  high  door  at  C,  Fig.  2.  At  E,  Fig.  2,  are  windows 
to  light  the  passages,  etc.,  and  at  F,  Fig.  2,  are  placed  the  stairs 
by  which  access  is  obtained  to  the  ice  room  and  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  inclosing  space.  The  studding  of  the  interior  frame  is 
3  by  12  inche  *,  that  of  the  exterior  frame  is  3  by  10  inches,  and 
the  spaces  bet  wen  the  studding  are  filled  with  saw-dust.  The 
space  under  the  lower  floor  is  filled  with  wood  shavings.  The 
floor  and  ceiling  joists  also  have  their  spaces  filled  with  sawdust. 
At  G,  Fig.  2,  is  a  ventilator  shaft,  and  at  H  a  girder.  The  window 
sashes  are  double,  and  the  doors  have  canvas  linings  packed 
with  sawdust  to  make  them  of  the  thickness  of  the  frame.  The 
excavation  is  about  2  feet  below  the  surface.  A  drain  was  pro- 
vided extending  from  the  center  of  the  building  under  the  lower 
floor  to  the  sewer  and  trapped.— [R.  G.  Hatfield,  New  York  City. 


INDEX. 


APPLES,  assorting  fruit,     -    -    31 
barrels  for,        -    -    -    -    - 

budding,     -    -    -               -      7-20 
boxts  for  storage,        -    -    -      32 

Storing,        -      -    -    -    - 
summer,   ------ 
value  of,     -    -    -    -    - 
varieties,  ------ 
winter,        -    -    -    -    - 
appendix,      -     - 
fruits  for  the  cold  north, 
Budding,     ------ 

BLACKBERRY    -    -    -    - 

-    32 

-      28 
-    -      3 

26-28 
-    -    28 
-     105 
105-108 
-      7-10 
84-86 
-    -    85 
84 

changing  the  bearing  year,         22 
cold  storage  for,       -    -    -    -    32 
exporting  the  fruit,     - 
fall  varieties,       -----    28 
fertilizers  for,    -----       19 
foreign  trade  in,       -     -     - 
gathering  and  storing,     -       :><>-:  52 

culture,       -    -—     -     - 

winter  protection,    - 
varieties,       ---..--•- 
CjIERRY,        ----- 

-    -    86 
-      86 
-    66-6* 
66 

hybridization,  improvement  by,  4 
heading  up  the  trees,      -    -       15 
insects  injurious  to, 

varieties,     -    -     -    -    - 
CURRANT,  ------ 

injurious  insects,       -     - 

-    -    67 
91-93 
-    -    93 

Q1 

apple  maggot,     -    -    -    -      42 

canker  worm,       -    -    -    -      39 
codlin  moth,     -----    41 
curculio,     ------      42 
flat-headed  borer,     -    -    -    37 
round-headed  borer,    -    -      36 

piumng,     ------ 

01 

DISEASES  of  the 
Grape,   ------ 
Plum,       ------ 
pear,       -    - 
peach,       ------ 
quince,  -     - 
strawberry,  -    -    -    -    - 

GARDEN,  Fruit, 
GRAPE,    ------ 

-    -    83 
-      62 
-    -    48 
-      56 
-    -    65 
-    101 
103-104 
-     69-83 
-    -  79 

oyster  shell  bark  louse,    -      38 
woolly  aphis,     -----    37 
keeping,    -    -    -          -    -    -      31 
manures  for,  -    -    - 
mulching,      ------       19 

culture,       __-_- 
cuttings,       -    -    -    -    - 
distance  of  planting,   - 

-    -    72 
-    -  70 
-    -    72 

-    -  83 

forming  the  head  of  trees  in,    10 
planting    seedlings  and  root 
grafts,   ------       7 
origin  of.       -------     3 
orchard,      ------    H-13 
culture,  methods  of,     -      11-16 
laying  out,        -----     12 
manure  for,    -----      13 
planting,                          12,  14,  16 
soil  for,       ------      11 
turf  culture,     -----     16 
odd-year  bearing,       -    -    -      22 
pruning,      -     -    -                 -     19-21 
picking  the  fruit,    -     -     -     -      31 
packing,      -    -     -    -----     31 
price    in    home     and     foreign 

exposure  for  vineyards 

-    -    72 
71 

grafting,       -          -     -     - 

78 

SO 

history  of,  ----- 
insects  injurious  to, 
berry  moth,      -    -     - 
bug,      ------ 

phylloxera,       -    -    - 
location  of  vineyard,     - 

-    -    69 
-    -  80 
-    -    83 
-    -  80 
-    -    81 
-    -  72 
69 

7; 

70 

preserving1,-      -    -    -    - 

-    -  78 
-     6<>-71 

pruning,  ------ 
soil  for  -     -     -     -     -     - 

-  76-79 
-     -     72 

78 

propagation  of,                          -    5 
budding,      -     -     -                  7-10 
seed,  best  kind  of,      -     -    -    5 
bed.      -------      5 

73 

training,     ----- 
varieties,    ----- 
value  of,       ----- 
GOOSEBERRY,  -    -    -    - 
GRAFTING,  -    -    -    -    - 
INSECTS  injurious  to  thes 

-    72-74 
-    -    79 
-    -  69 
-    -    95 
-    23-24 

-    36-43 

time  of  planting,                -    5 
seedlings,  trimming,           --      5 
digging,       -    -    -                -     6 
qualities,  important,                      4 
l-egrafting,     -    -    -    -                  23 
root  grafting  of,    -                    -     2 

cherry.     -              .     - 

-      08 

Currant,         - 93 1  Insects,   - 

grape,  -    - 80-81 

gooseberry,     ------ 

pear,    - -      48 

peach,    ------__55 


plum, 

quince,  -    -    -    -    - 
raspberry, 

strawberry,      -    -    - 
LABELS  for  fruit  trees, 
PLUM,     ----- 
age  of  bearing,     -    - 
borer,  peach,  -    -    - 
bug,  rose      -    -    -    - 
cultivation,     -    -    - 
classification, 


-  61 

-65 

-  90 

101 

-  43 

58-02 

-  59 
-  62 

-  62 
59 
59 


diseases,     -------62 

fruit,  gathering  the  -    -    -    -  60 

fruit,  thinning  the  -     -     -     -    59 

fruit,  rotting  of  the      -    -    -    62 
insects,    --------61 


origin,    --------58 

propagation,     ------  58 


planting,  distance  of 
pruning,  ------ 

soil,  ------- 

treatment,  nursery    -    - 
treatment,  orchard 
varieties,  standard    -    - 
varieties,  additional     - 
weevil  or  curculio,  plum 
QUINCE,    ------ 

cultivation,  ----- 

crop,  importance  of 


58 

-  59 

-  58 

-  58 

-  58 

-  59 

-  60 

-  61 
63-65 

-  64 

-  63 


harvesting,     ------    65 

insects,    --------  65 

origin,    -----_--<;:', 

propagation,     -    -    -    -    -    -63 

soil,  ---------64 

treatment,  nursery   -    -    -    -  64 

treatment,  orchard  -  -  -  -  64 

RASPBERRY,     -----  88-90 

The  Red  Raspberry,     -    -    88 
cultivation,  methods  of     -    -  88 
distance,     -------88 

origin,      --------  ,S8 

propagation,   ------    88 

pruning,  --------  ss 

soil,   ---------88 

varieties,      -------88 

Blackcap  Raspberry,     -    89-90 
cultivation,  methods  of  -    -    -  89 
insects,  --------90 

propagation,     ------  89 

planting,  distance  for  -    -    -    89 
training,       -------  89 

varieties,  -------89 

STRAWBERRY,   -    -    -    -    96-102 

cultivation,     ------    97 

crop,  importance  of  -    -    -    -  96 

diseases,   -------    101 

fertilization,  cross  -    -    -    -  102 

gathering  and  shipping,       -    100 


101 
96 

-  96 

97 
97 

-  98 
96 


origin,  ------ 

propagation,     -    -    -    - 

planting,  time  of     -    - 
planting,  methods  of    - 
protection,  winter     -    - 
soil,  ------- 

varieties,      -------  99 

varieties,  new     -    -    -    -    -  100 

PEAR,      -------    44.49 

age  of  bearing,     -----  45 

autumn  varieties,     -    -    -    -    46 

blight,     --------  48 

diseases,     -------    43 

distance  of  planting,  -  45 

forming  the  head,    -     -    -    -     45 

gathering-,    _______  47 
ealthf  ulness,      -----    44 

improvement  of    -     -  -  44 

insect  pests,    -    •  -    48 

marketing,  -------47 

nursery,      -------    45 

orchard,  --------45 


origin,  -  -  - 
propagation,  • 
preserving, 
ripening,  -  - 
summer,  -  - 
varieties, 


-  44 

-  44 

-  48 

-  47 

-  46 
...                                 -  46 

variations  in  ------    46 

-  47 
50-67 

-  53 

-  51 

-  55 

-  51 

-  54 

-  56 

-  51 

-  54 

-  57 

-  55 

-  50 


winter,  ------- 

PEACH,     --___. 
age  of  bearing,  -      -    - 
budding,      ------ 

borer,    -     ------ 

cultivation  in  nursery,  -     - 
classification,  ---'-- 
diseases,  ------- 

exposure,    ----- 

fruit,  thinning  the     -     -     - 
fruit,  rotting  of  the      -     - 
fruit,  gathering  the      -    - 
importance,      ----- 

insects,  ------- 

manuring,    ------ 

marketing,      ----- 

origin, 

orchard,      ------ 

propagation, 

planting,  distance  for  -     - 
planting,  preparing  tree  for 
protection,  winter    -     -     • 
pruning,  annual    -    -    -    - 

seed,  best  ------ 

seed,  planting  -  50 

soil,  best  .for  nursery    -     -    -    51 
soil  for  orchard,    -----  51 

tree,  forming  the     -     -     -     -    51 

training  and  pruning,     -          -  52 
varieties,     -------54 

varieties,  additional  -     -     -    -  55 

varieties,  new      -----    55 


-  52 
55 

-  50 
51 

-  50 
52 

-  52 
53 

-  52 
50 


yeltbws,      -------    57 

yellows,  remedy  for  -    -    -    -  57 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig.    1.  Apple  root  cut  for  grafting,     -  ...      Page    6 

2.  Scion  cut  for  grafting,       .---.,----• 

3.  Completed  root  graft, 6 

4.  Dibble,      -  

5.  Tamper,  

6.  Budding  knife, 

7.  Bud  stick, 

8.  Stock  showing  the  T  cut,  

9.  Bud   cut   ready  for  insertion, 

10.  Bud    inserted, 

11.  Bud    inserted  and  tied, 

12.  Planting  board, 

13.  Tree  with  lateral  branches  starting  out  at  one  point,       -       -  15 
13.  Tree   with   lateral  branches  well  distributed,       .... 

15.  A  perfectly  forme*  apple  tree, 

16.  An  imperfectly  formed  apple  tree, 

17.  Pruning  saw,  *| 

18.  Pruning  hook, 21 

19.  Grafting  hook,          -       - 

20.  Stock  split  with  wedge  of  grafting  hook, 

21.  Scion  prepared  for  insertion  into  the  cleft,          • 

22.  Section   of  scion, 

23.  Diagram  of  completed  graft, 

24.  Completed   graft  in  perspective,          

25.  The  bag  apple-picker, 

26.  The  wire  apple-picker, 

27.  The  pointed  ladder, 

28.  The  extension  ladder, 

29.  The  storing  boxes, 

30.  The  lever  press, 

31  a.  Larvae  of   round-headed  apple   borer, 

31  b.  Chrysalis 

31  c.  Perfect  beetle," 

32  a.  JLarvae  of  flat-headed  apple  borer, 

32  b.  Chrysalis       "          "          "          

32  c.  Head  of  larva?         "          "          

32  (L  Perfect  beetle         " 

33.  Stages  of  developement  of  the  wooly  aphis,       -       -       -  37 

34.  Scale  bark  louse  on  apple  branch, 

.   35.      Male  moth  of  tent  caterpillar,    -       -       - 

36.      Female      " 

37  ab  Larvae  of  tent  caterpillar,  with  web     - 

37  c.  Eggs 

37J.  Cocoon  "  "  " 

38 a.  Male  canker  worm,  

38  £.  Female  canker  worm.  • 

39.  Apple  aphis,  male  and  female  (mag.)          ..-,.- 

40.  Codlin  moth,  in  various  staucs. 

4^  a.  Channel  made  by  larvse  of  codlin  moth, 
40  b.  Entrance  of  larva  which  escaped  at ,  top. 
411  (I.  Chrysalis  or  codlin  moth, 

40  e.  Larva  of   codlin  moth,  - 41 

40  f.  Moth  with  its  wings  closed, 41 

40  </.  Moth  with  its  wings  spread,  41 

40  'It.  Head  of  larva,  - 41 

40  /.  Cocoon,  

4H>.  Apple  maggot,  perfect,  insect  (magnified), 

41  a.  Apple  maggot  larva  (magnified), 

42  a.  Plum  weevil  or  curculio  (magnified),  

42  d.  Plum   weevil,  natural  size,  attacking  the  fruit,          ...  42 

42 c.  Plum  weevil  larva  (magnified), 42 

42  <:/.  Plum  weevil  larva,  natural  size  on  fruit, 

43.  Properly  formed  peach  tree, 52 

44.  Improperly  formed  peach  tree,  showing  signs  of  the  yellows,    -  52 

45.  Male  peach  borer,       -----------  55 

46.  Female  peach  borer, 5& 

47.  Larva  of  peach  borer,  - 55 

48.  Trunk  of  peach  tree  showing  work  of  peach  borer,     -  56 

49.  Plum  weevil  or  curculio,  various  stages, 

50.  Curculio  screen  or  frame, 

51.  Bush  form  of  the  quince  tree,    -          ------- 

52.  Tree   form  of  the  quince  tree,  64 

53.  Long  cutting  of  grape  vine, 

54.  Short          "  "  70 

55.  Layer          "  "  70 

56.  One   stake  support  for  grape  vine,  .....  73 

57-  Two  "  "  "  73 

58.  Trellis,  on  left  spur  system,        -  74 

58.  Trellis  on  right  spur  and  cane  system,         -  74 


Fig.  59  Trellis  on  right  vertical  spur  and  cane  system,  •       -      Page  lh 

59.  Trellis  on  left  vertical  spur  system,                                                .  75 

60.  Trellis  on  left  horizontal  spur  system,         -  76 

60.  Trellis  on   right  horizontal  spur  and  cane  system                   -  ?tj 

61.  Cane  from  spur,  to  be  cut  at  a,    •         ..... 

62.  One  cane  fruiting  and  one  without  fruit, 

63.  Grape  vine    girdled  at  A, 80 

64.  Girdling   knife,                             80 

65.  Grape  phylloxera,  leaf  form  in  various  stages,          ...  81 

66.  Grape    phylloxera,   root  form  and  injured  root,          ...  82 

67.  Grape    phylloxera,  winged  form  and  injured  roots,      -       -  s_> 

68.  Grape  berry  moth;  a,  perfect  insect;  l>,  larva ;  c,d, injured  berries,       83 

69.  Raspberry   root  borer,  a,  male;  6,  female  insect,    ....  90 

70.  Male  and   female    currant  worm,  93 

71.  Eggs  of   currant   worm,          -.--...       =      „  ^ 

72.  Larvae  in   various  stages  of  growth,  93 

73.  Female  moth  of  the  imported  currant  worm, 

74.  Larva  of  the  imported  currant  worm,          •.»..«  94 
74  a.  Chrysalis  of  the  imported  currant  wornij                   =  94 

75.  Strawberry  root  borer,                                                              •  •       •>  101 

76.  Strawberry  crown  borer,      •      •-.««•*.._»«  102 


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